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Contents
1 Ekizce Köyünün Halkı
2 Ayrıca bakınız
3 Bizim Web Sitelerimiz
4 Resmi Web Sitelerimiz
Ekizce Köyünün Halkı
Köyün kurucu aileleri: Köycü'Ler, Akdeniz'Ler, Yıldırım'Lar, Aydoğan'Lar,
Köy'e sonra'dan gelenler: Altıntaş'Lar, Yeşildağ'Lar, Yılmaz'Lar, Kalender'Ler...
Resmi Web Sitemiz: www.Ekizceliler.Com
Ayrıca bakınız
Muscali Khanate
Muscali Clan
Muscali
Muscalu
Ekizce Köyü
Köycü
Akdeniz
Yıldırım
Aydoğan
Altıntaş
Yeşildağ
Yılmaz
Kalender
Bizim Web Sitelerimiz
Ekizceliler.com
EkizcelilerDernegi.com
EkizcelilerDernegi.com
Ekizceliler.com/Forum
Ekizce.Blogspot.com/
Ekizceliler.com/Wiki
Resmi Web Sitelerimiz
Ekizceliler.com
EkizcelilerDernegi.com
EkizcelilerDernegi.com
Ekizceliler.com/Forum
Ekizce.Blogspot.com/
Ekizceliler.com/Wiki
Categories: Muscali - Muscalu - Ekizce - Ekizce Köyü - Köycü'Ler - Akdeniz'Ler - Yıldırım'Lar - Aydoğan'Lar - Altıntaş'Lar - Yeşildağ'Lar - Yılmaz'Lar - Kalender'Ler - Emirdağ
This page was last modified on 26 March 2017, at 22:37.
İstatistikler: Gönderilme zamanı gönderen Kochi Oghul — 08 Eyl 2019, 18:31 — Cevaplar 0 — Görüntüleme 107436
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Köchü I
Khüchü (or Köchü, Konchi, Konichi) was the Khan of the White Horde between c.1280-1302. He was the eldest son of Sartaqtay and Qujiyan of the Qongirat and a grandson of Orda Khan.
Contents
1 Background of Köchü I
2 Childeren of Köchü I Khan
2.1 Childeren of Köchü I and Tokolukan Khatun of the Kunkirrat
2.2 Childeren of Köchü I and Bukulun Khatun of the Merkit
2.3 Childeren of Köchü I and Chingtum Khatun of the Kunkirrat
2.4 Childeren of Köchü I and Bek Ujin Khatun of the Djajirrat
2.5 Childeren of Köchü I and Turuqan Khatun of the Olkhunut
3 References
Background of Köchü I
Marco Polo says Köchü had a vast number of people, but he carried on no war with anybody, and his people lived in great tranquility. Since 1280 he sent friendly letter to Kublai Khan, and the Yuan dynasty rewarded him a large amount of grains and other valuable things of China in turn for his alliance. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, he also kept a very friendly relationship with his relatives, the Ilkhanate, in Persia. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, Köchü allied with Kaidu.
Marco Polo describes the Horde as extremely cold area, saying:
"This king (Köchü) has neither city nor castle; he and his people live always either in the wide plains or among great mountains and valleys. They subsist on the milk and flesh of their cattle, and have no grain. The king has a vast number of people, but he carries on no war with anybody, and his people live in great tranquility. They have enormous numbers of cattle, camels, horses, oxen, sheep, and so forth."<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref>
Köchü possessed the territory of Ghazna and Bamiyan under the suzerainty of either the Chagatayid Khans or the Ilkhan.<ref>Stanley Lane-Poole-The Mohammedan Dynasties, p.227</ref> However, he proved his alliance and refused when Baraq, ruler of Chagatai Khanate, demanded him to give up the authority of those areas before his attack on Iran in 1269.
He was an influential khan. When the Borjigin princes, who operated on Kublai's behalf in Central Asia and later on rebelled, fought against each other, they appealed to Köchü. In c.1302 he died because of his overweight.
Childeren of Köchü I Khan
Köchü I had many khatuns and concubines. Köchü I married first Tokolukan and (his first love) last with Turuqan. Other wives included Bukulun, Chingtum and Bek Ujin.
Childeren of Köchü I and Tokolukan Khatun of the Kunkirrat
He had a son:
Bayan (khan), the Khan of the White Horde, his eldest son and successor.
Childeren of Köchü I and Bukulun Khatun of the Merkit
He had a son:
Bachkirtai, father of Yaka Khan
Childeren of Köchü I and Chingtum Khatun of the Kunkirrat
He had a son:
Chagan Buqa, father of Chiratai
Childeren of Köchü I and Bek Ujin Khatun of the Djajirrat
He had a son:
Makudai
Childeren of Köchü I and Turuqan Khatun of the Olkhunut
He had 4 sons:
Köycü - Köcü II Khan, Köicü, Köycü, the Khan of the Muscalid Tribe
Akdeniz
Yıldırım
Aydoğan
-
İstatistikler: Gönderilme zamanı gönderen Kochi Oghul — 08 Eyl 2019, 00:09 — Cevaplar 0 — Görüntüleme 107501
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Köchü II Khan
Khüchü (or Köchü, Kochi Oghul, Konchi, Konichi) was the Khan of the White Horde between c.1302-1303. And later Muscalid Tribe between c.1303-1339. He was the Son of Köchü and Turuqan Khatun of the Olkhunut and a great-grandson of Orda Khan.
Childeren of Köchü I Khan and Turukhan Khatun
Köchü I had many khatuns and concubines. Köchü I married first Tokolukan and last with Turuqan. Other wives included Bukulun, Chingtum and Bek Ujin.
Childeren of Köchü I and Turuqan Khatun of the Olkhunut
He had 4 sons:
Köycü - Köcü II Khan, Köicü, Köycü, the Khan of the Muscalid Tribe
Akdeniz
Yıldırım
Aydoğan
About his Father Köchü I
Marco Polo says Köchü had a vast number of people, but he carried on no war with anybody, and his people lived in great tranquility. Since 1280 he sent friendly letter to Kublai Khan, and the Yuan dynasty rewarded him a large amount of grains and other valuable things of China in turn for his alliance. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, he also kept a very friendly relationship with his relatives, the Ilkhanate, in Persia. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, Köchü allied with Kaidu.
Marco Polo describes the Horde as extremely cold area, saying:
"This king (Köchü) has neither city nor castle; he and his people live always either in the wide plains or among great mountains and valleys. They subsist on the milk and flesh of their cattle, and have no grain. The king has a vast number of people, but he carries on no war with anybody, and his people live in great tranquility. They have enormous numbers of cattle, camels, horses, oxen, sheep, and so forth."<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref>
Köchü possessed the territory of Ghazna and Bamiyan under the suzerainty of either the Chagatayid Khans or the Ilkhan.<ref>Stanley Lane-Poole-The Mohammedan Dynasties, p.227</ref> However, he proved his alliance and refused when Baraq, ruler of Chagatai Khanate, demanded him to give up the authority of those areas before his attack on Iran in 1269.
He was an influential khan. When the Borjigin princes, who operated on Kublai's behalf in Central Asia and later on rebelled, fought against each other, they appealed to Köchü. In c.1302 he died because of his overweight.
İstatistikler: Gönderilme zamanı gönderen Kochi Oghul — 08 Eyl 2019, 00:04 — Cevaplar 0 — Görüntüleme 107458
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Köchü
Khüchü (or Köchü, Konchi, Konichi) was the Khan of the White Horde between c.1280-1302. He was the eldest son of Sartaqtay and Qujiyan of the Qongirat and a grandson of Orda Khan.
Marco Polo says Köchü had a vast number of people, but he carried on no war with anybody, and his people lived in great tranquility. Since 1280 he sent friendly letter to Kublai Khan, and the Yuan dynasty rewarded him a large amount of grains and other valuable things of China in turn for his alliance. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, he also kept a very friendly relationship with his relatives, the Ilkhanate, in Persia. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, Köchü allied with Kaidu.
Köchü possessed the territory of Ghazna and Bamiyan under the suzerainty of either the Chagatayid Khans or the Ilkhan.<ref>Stanley Lane-Poole-The Mohammedan Dynasties, p.227</ref> However, he proved his alliance and refused when Baraq, ruler of Chagatai Khanate, demanded him to give up the authority of those areas before his attack on Iran in 1269.
He was an influential khan. When the Borjigin princes, who operated on Kublai's behalf in Central Asia and later on rebelled, fought against each other, they appealed to Köchü. In c.1302 he died because of his overweight.
İstatistikler: Gönderilme zamanı gönderen Kochi Oghul — 08 Eyl 2019, 00:03 — Cevaplar 0 — Görüntüleme 107324
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Bu 4 kardeşin soyundan gelenler Musul'da "Muscalı" Kabilesini kuran kardeşler ve akrabalardır.
Not: Sartaqtay Han'ın başka eşleride vardı ve onlardanda çocukları var idi.
İstatistikler: Gönderilme zamanı gönderen Kochi Oghul — 07 Eyl 2019, 23:56 — Cevaplar 1 — Görüntüleme 55851
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Khüchü (or Köchü, Konchi, Konichi) was the Khan of the White Horde between c. 1280-1302. He was the eldest son of Sartaqtay and Qujiyan of the Qongirat and a grandson of Orda Khan.
Marco Polo says Köchü had a vast number of people, but he carried on no war with anybody, and his people lived in great tranquility. Since 1280 he sent friendly letter to Kublai Khan, and the Yuan dynasty rewarded him a large amount of grains and other valuable things of China in turn for his alliance. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, he also kept a very friendly relationship with his relatives, the Ilkhanate, in Persia. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, Köchü allied with Kaidu.
Köchü possessed the territory of Ghazna and Bamiyan under the suzerainty of either the Chagatayid Khans or the Ilkhan.[1] However, he proved his alliance and refused when Baraq, ruler of Chagatai Khanate, demanded him to give up the authority of those areas before his attack on Iran in 1269.
Since 1280, Orda's successor, Konchi or Köchü, had allied with the Yuan Dynasty and the Ilkhanate, in return, they rewarded him. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's account or H. H. Howorth's analysis, Kunchi possessed the territory of Ghazna and Bamiyan under the suzerainty of either the Chagatai Khanate or the Ilkhanate.[11] Kunchi warned the Ilkhan Abagha of the upcoming invasion of Baraq (Chagatai Khan) in 1268. However, when the Borjigin princes, who operated on the Kublai Khan's behalf in Central Asia and later rebelled, fought against each other, they appealed to Kunchi whose response is not clear.
Marco Polo describes the Horde as extremely cold area, saying:
"This king (Köchü) has neither city nor castle; he and his people live always either in the wide plains or among great mountains and valleys. They subsist on the milk and flesh of their cattle, and have no grain. The king has a vast number of people, but he carries on no war with anybody, and his people live in great tranquility. They have enormous numbers of cattle, camels, horses, oxen, sheep, and so forth."[12]
He was an influential khan. When the Borjigin princes, who operated on Kublai's behalf in Central Asia and later on rebelled, fought against each other, they appealed to Köchü. In c. 1302 he died because of he was overweight.
Genealogy
Genghis Khan
Jochi
Orda Khan
Sartaqtay
Köchü
See also
List of Khans of the Golden Horde
References
[1] Stanley Lane-Poole-The Mohammedan Dynasties, p.227
[11] Stanley Lane-Poole The Mohammedan Dynasties, p.227
[12] "Travels of Marco Polo". Shsu.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
Köchü
House of Borjigin (1206-1635)
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Qun QuranKhan of the White Horde
1280-1302Succeeded by
Bayan
Categories: Nomadic groups in EurasiaKhans of the White Horde13th-century monarchs in AsiaBorjigin13th-century Mongol rulers
This page was last edited on 20 June 2019, at 13:04 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
İstatistikler: Gönderilme zamanı gönderen Kochi Oghul — 07 Eyl 2019, 17:44 — Cevaplar 8 — Görüntüleme 283130
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Khüchü (or Köchü, Konchi, Konichi) was the Khan of the White Horde between c. 1280-1302. He was the eldest son of Sartaqtay and Qujiyan of the Qongirat and a grandson of Orda Khan.
Marco Polo says Köchü had a vast number of people, but he carried on no war with anybody, and his people lived in great tranquility. Since 1280 he sent friendly letter to Kublai Khan, and the Yuan dynasty rewarded him a large amount of grains and other valuable things of China in turn for his alliance. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, he also kept a very friendly relationship with his relatives, the Ilkhanate, in Persia. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, Köchü allied with Kaidu.
Köchü possessed the territory of Ghazna and Bamiyan under the suzerainty of either the Chagatayid Khans or the Ilkhan.[1] However, he proved his alliance and refused when Baraq, ruler of Chagatai Khanate, demanded him to give up the authority of those areas before his attack on Iran in 1269.
He was an influential khan. When the Borjigin princes, who operated on Kublai's behalf in Central Asia and later on rebelled, fought against each other, they appealed to Köchü. In c. 1302 he died because of he was overweight.
Genealogy
Genghis Khan
Jochi
Orda Khan
Sartaqtay
Köchü
See also
List of Khans of the Golden Horde
References
Stanley Lane-Poole-The Mohammedan Dynasties, p.227
Köchü
House of Borjigin (1206-1635)
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Qun QuranKhan of the White Horde
1280-1302Succeeded by
Bayan
Categories: Nomadic groups in EurasiaKhans of the White Horde13th-century monarchs in AsiaBorjigin13th-century Mongol rulers
This page was last edited on 20 June 2019, at 13:04 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
İstatistikler: Gönderilme zamanı gönderen Kochi Oghul — 07 Eyl 2019, 17:42 — Cevaplar 2 — Görüntüleme 57575
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{{original research|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Mosul
| native_name = {{native name|ar|الموصل|italics=off}}
| other_name = مووسڵ
| image_skyline = مدينة الموصل.jpg
| imagesize =
| image_caption = [[Tigris]], a bridge and Grand Mosque in Mosul
| image_flag =
| image_seal =
| image_shield =
| nickname = Nīnwē
| motto =
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Iraq
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_mapsize =
| pushpin_relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|36.34|N|43.13|E|region:IQ|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Iraq}}
| subdivision_type2 = Governorate
| subdivision_name2 = [[Nineveh Governorate]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| parts_type = [[ISIL territorial claims|Occupation of part]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant.svg|border}} [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]]
| government_type =
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Hussein Ali Khajem
| area_footnotes =
| area_water_percent =
| elevation_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web |first=Philip |last=Gladstone |title=Synop Information for ORBM (40608) in Mosul, Iraq |url=http://weather.gladstonefamily.net/site/ORBM |website=Weather Quality Reporter |accessdate=16 June 2014|date=10 February 2014}}</ref>
| elevation_m = 223
| elevation_ft = 732
| population_total = 664,221<!--Note: use population_footnotes for refs, use only unformatted numbers here -->
| population_as_of = 2015
| population_footnotes =
| population_urban = Unknown (estimates range between 750,000 and 1,500,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/iraqi-city-of-mosul-transformed-a-year-after-islamic-state-capture-1433888626 |title=Iraqi City of Mosul Transformed a Year After Islamic State Capture|work=Wall Street Journal}}</ref>
| population_demonym = Moslawi
| population_note = UNData 1987<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=POP&f=tableCode%3A240 |title=UNSD Demographic Statistics |work=United Nations Statistics Division 1987}}</ref>
| postal_code_type =
| postal_code =
| area_code = 60
| unemployment_rate =
| website =
| footnotes =
| timezone = [[Arabia Standard Time|AST]]
| utc_offset = +3
| timezone_DST =
| utc_offset_DST =
}}
[[File:Map of Mosul.svg|thumb]]
'''Mosul''' ({{lang-ar|الموصل}} ''{{transl|ar|al-Mawṣil}}'', <small>[[North Mesopotamian Arabic]]:</small> ''{{transl|ayp|el-Mōṣul}}''; {{lang-ku|مووسڵ}},{{lang-syr|ܡܘܨܠ|[[Syriac Latin alphabet|Māwṣil]]}}, {{lang-tr|Musul}}) is a city in northern [[Iraq]]. Since October 2016 it has been the site of a military operation led by the Iraqi Government, under [[Haider al-Abadi]], in an effort to dislodge and defeat militant forces. The city has been under the control of the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] since June 2014, and no westerner has entered the city until the latest initiative. The [[Battle of Mosul (2016–17)|Battle of Mosul]], a military offensive to retake the city begun in October 2016, is the largest deployment of Iraqi forces since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 invasion]] by U.S. and coalition forces.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hawramy|first1=Fazel|last2=Harding|first2=Luke|title=Iraqi and Kurdish forces close in on Mosul after making quick gains|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/20/mosul-attack-kurdish-forces-launch-large-scale-operation-against-isis-in-iraq|accessdate=20 October 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=20 October 2016}}</ref>
Located some {{convert|400|km|abbr=on}} north of [[Baghdad]], the city stands on the west bank of the [[Tigris]], opposite the ancient [[Old Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] city of [[Nineveh]] on the east bank. The metropolitan area has grown to encompass substantial areas on both the "Left Bank" (east side) and the "Right Bank" (west side), as the two banks are described by the locals compared to the flow direction of Tigris.
At the start of the 21st century, Mosul and its surrounds had an ethnically and religiously diverse population; the majority of Mosul's population were [[Arabs]], with [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]],<ref>Soane, E.B. ''To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise.'' John Murray: London, 1912. p. 92.</ref><ref>Rev. W.A. Wigram (1929). ''The Assyrians and Their Neighbours.'' London.</ref><ref>Unrepresented Nations and People Organization (UNPO). ''Assyrians the Indigenous People of Iraq'' [1]</ref> [[Armenians]], [[Iraqi Turkmens|Turkmens]], [[Kurds in Iraq|Kurds]], [[Yazidis]], [[Shabaki dialect|Shabakis]], [[Mandaeans]], [[Gypsies in Iraq|Kawliya]], [[Circassians]] in addition to other, smaller ethnic minorities. In religious terms, mainstream [[Sunni Islam]] was the largest religion, but with a significant number of followers of the [[Salafi movement]] and [[Christianity]] (the latter followed by the Assyrians and Armenians), as well as [[Shia Islam]], [[Sufism]], Yazidism, [[Shabakism]], [[Yarsanism]] and [[Mandaeism]].
The city's population grew rapidly around the turn of the millennium and by 2004 was estimated to be 1,846,500.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Mosul.aspx |title=Mosul |publisher=''Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa'' |date=1 January 2004}}</ref> An estimated half million people fled Mosul in the second half of 2014 when the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|IS]] fought with government forces for control of the city. On November 17, 2014, ISIS attacked the city of Mosul, ultimately killing seven civilians, two soldiers, and wounding 35 others.<ref name="ohchr">{{cite web |format=PDF |url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/IQ/UNAMI_OHCHR_POC_Report_FINAL_6July_10September2014.pdf |title=Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict in Iraq: 6 July – 10 September 2014 |publisher=[[United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq|UNAMI]] and [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]] |accessdate=21 December 2014}}</ref> While some residents returned, more fled in 2015 as fighting and violence increased, and US bombings pounded the city.
Historically, important products of the area include Mosul [[marble]] and [[oil]]. The city of Mosul is home to the [[University of Mosul]] and its renowned Medical College, which together was one of the largest educational and research centers in Iraq and the Middle East. The University has since been closed. The Islamic State's leadership in Mosul has kept the Medical College open but it is reported to be barely functional.
Until 2014, the city, together with the nearby [[Nineveh plains]], was one of the historic centers for the Assyrians<ref>Dalley, Stephanie (1993). "Nineveh After 612 BC." ''Alt-Orientanlische Forshchungen 20''. p.134.</ref><ref>Robert D Biggs - "Especially in view of the very early establishment of Christianity in Assyria and its continuity to the present and the continuity of the population, I think there is every likelihood that ancient Assyrians are among the ancestors of modern Assyrians of the area."</ref> and their churches; the [[Assyrian Church of the East]]; its offshoot, the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]]; and the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], containing the tombs of several [[Old Testament]] prophets such as [[Jonah]], which was destroyed by Islamic State occupation army in July 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/07/24/world/iraq-violence/|title=ISIS militants destroy the tomb of Jonah|date=25 July 2014 |publisher=CNN |author1=Dana Ford |author2=Mohammed Tawfeeq |lastauthoramp=yes }}</ref>
==Etymology==
The name of the city is first mentioned by [[Xenophon]] in his expeditionary logs in [[Achaemenid Assyria]] of 401 BC, during the reign of the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]]. There, he notes a small [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] town of "Mépsila" ({{lang-grc|Μέψιλα}}) on the Tigris somewhere about where modern Mosul is today (''[[Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]]'', III.iv.10). It may be safer to identify Xenophon's ''Mépsila'' with the site of Iski Mosul, or "Old Mosul", about {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} north of modern Mosul, where six centuries after Xenophon's report, the [[Sasanian Empire]]'s center of [[Budh-Ardhashir]] was built. Be that as it may, the name Mepsila is doubtless the root for the modern name.
In its current Arabic form and spelling, the term Mosul, or rather "Mawsil", stands for the "linking point" – or loosely, the "Junction City," in [[Arabic]]. Mosul should not be confused with the ancient Assyrian capital of [[Nineveh]], which is located across the Tigris from Mosul on the eastern bank, at the famed archaeological mound of Kuyunjik (Turkoman for "sheep's hill"). This area is known today as the town of Nebi Yunus ("prophet [[Jonah]]") and is now populated largely by [[Kurds]]. It is the only fully-Kurdish neighborhood in Mosul. The site contains the tomb of the Biblical Jonah, as he lived and died in the then capital of ancient Assyria. Today, this entire area has been absorbed into the Mosul metropolitan area. The [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] still refer to the entire city of Mosul as ''Nineveh'' (or rather, Ninweh).<ref>Dalley, Stephanie (1993) "Nineveh After 612 BC," ''Alt-Orientanlische Forshchungen 20,'' p.134</ref>
The ancient Nineveh was succeeded by Mepsila after the fall of [[Assyria]] between 612-599 BC at the hands of a coalition of [[Babylonia]]ns, [[Medes]], [[Persian Empire|Persians]], [[Scythians]], [[Cimmerians]] and [[Sagartians]]. The [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] largely abandoned the city, building new smaller settlements such as Mepsila nearby.<ref>Reuters article - reprinted in ''Nabu Magazine,'' Vol. 3, Issue 1 (1997)</ref>
Mosul is also named ''al-Faiha'' ("the Paradise"), ''al-Khaḍrah'' ("the Green"), and ''al-Hadbah'' ("the Humped"). It is sometimes described as "The Pearl of the North"<ref name="AtlasTours">[http://www.atlastours.net/iraq/mosul.html "Mosul, Iraq"] from AtlasTours.net</ref> and "the city of a million soldiers".<ref>{{cite news|title=The war against Islamic State (2): Mosul beckons|url=http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21648055-it-will-not-be-easy-retake-iraqs-second-city-mosul-beckons|accessdate=22 April 2015|work=[[The Economist]]|date=11 April 2015}}</ref>
==History==
{{See also|Timeline of Mosul}}
===Ancient era and early Middle Ages===
{{seealso|Syria#Etymology}}
[[File:Saint Elijah's Monastery 1.JPG|120px|thumb|[[Dair Mar Elia]] south of Mosul, Iraq's oldest monastery of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], dating from the [[6th century]]. It was destroyed by [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]] in 2014.]]
The area in which Mosul lies was an integral part of [[Assyria]] from as early as the 25th century BC, and after the [[Akkadian Empire]] (2335–2154 BC) which united all of the peoples of [[Mesopotamia]] under one rule, it again became a continuous part of Assyria proper from circa 2050 BC through to the fall of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] between 612–599 BC. However, it remained within the [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] province of Assyria for a further thirteen centuries (as a part of [[Achaemenid Assyria]], [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] Syria, [[Assyria (Roman province)|Roman Assyria]] and Sasanian [[Asōristān]]) until the [[early Muslim conquests]] of the mid-7th century, after which the region saw a gradual influx of Muslim Arab, Kurdish and Turkic peoples, although the Assyrians continue to use the name ''Athura'' for the ecclesiastical province.
Nineveh is mentioned in the [[Old Assyrian Empire]] (2025-1750), and during the reign of [[Shamshi-Adad I]] (1809-1776 BC) it is listed as a centre of worship of the goddess [[Ishtar]], and it remained as such during the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365-1056 BC). During the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (911-605 BC) Nineveh grew in size and importance, particularly from the reigns of [[Tukulti-Ninurta II]] and [[Ashurnasirpal II]] (883–859 BC) onward, however he chose the city of Kalhu (the Biblical ''Calah'', modern [[Nimrud]]) as his capital in place of the ancient traditional capital of [[Assur|Aššur]] ([[Ashur]]), {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} from present day Mosul. Thereafter successive Assyrian emperor- monarchs such as [[Shalmaneser III]], [[Adad-nirari III]], [[Tiglath-Pileser III]], [[Shalmaneser V]] and [[Sargon II]] continued to expand the city. In approximately 700 BC, King [[Sennacherib]] made [[Nineveh]] the new capital of Assyria. Immense building work was undertaken, and Nineveh eclipsed [[Babylon]], Kalhu and Aššur in both size and importance, making it the largest city in the world. A number of scholars believe the true location of the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] were in fact at Nineveh.<ref>Dalley, Stephanie, (2013) The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5</ref> The mound of Kuyunjik in Mosul is the site of the palaces of King [[Sennacherib]], and his successors [[Esarhaddon]], [[Ashurbanipal]], (who established the [[Library of Ashurbanipal]]) and [[Ashur-etil-ilani]]. The Assyrian Empire began to unravel from 626 BC onwards, being consumed by a decade of brutal internal civil wars, greatly weakening it. A war ravaged Assyria was subsequently attacked in 616 BC by a vast coalition of its former subjects; most notably the [[Babylonia]]ns, [[Medes]], [[Persians]], [[Chaldea]]ns, [[Scythians]], [[Cimmerians]] and [[Sagartians]]. Nineveh fell after a siege and bitter house to house fighting in 612 BC during the reign of [[Sinsharishkun]] who was killed defending his capital. His successor, [[Ashur-uballit II]], fought his way out of Nineveh and formed a new Assyrian capital at [[Harran]] (now southeastern Turkey).
Mosul (then Mepsila) later succeeded Nineveh as the Tigris bridgehead of the road that linked Assyria and [[Anatolia]] with the short lived [[Medes|Median Empire]] and succeeding [[Achaemenid Empire]] (546–332 BC) where it was a part of the geopolitical province of Athura, where the region saw a significant economic revival.
It became part of the [[Seleucid Empire]] after Alexander’s conquests in 332 BC. While little is known of the city from the Hellenistic period, Mosul likely belonged to the Seleucid satrapy of ''Syria'', the Greek term for ''Assyria'', Syria originally meaning Assyria rather than the modern nation of [[Syria]], which was conquered by the [[Parthian Empire]] circa 150 BC.
The city changed hands once again with the rise of the Sasanian Empire in [[225]] and became a part of the Sasanian province of Asōristān. Christianity was present among the indigenous [[Assyrian people]] in Mosul as early as the 1st century, although the [[ancient Mesopotamian religion]] remained strong until the [[4th century]]. It became an episcopal seat of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] in the 6th century.
In 637 (other sources say 641), during the period of the Caliph [[Umar]], the city was annexed to the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] by Utba bin Farqad Al-Salami, during the early Muslim conquests, after which it was dissolved as a geopolitical entity.
===9th century to 1535===
[[File:Siège de Mossoul (1261-1262).jpeg|thumb| [[Persian miniature]] depicting the siege of Mosul in 1261–63 from: {{Citation |first=Rashid-al-Din |last=Hamadani |title=[[Jami' al-tawarikh]] |author-mask=Rashid-al-Din Hamadani |publisher=Bibliothèque Nationale de France}}.]]
In the late 9th century control over the city was seized by the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] dynasts [[Ishaq ibn Kundaj]] and his son [[Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Kundaj|Muhammad]], but in 893 Mosul came once again under the direct control of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. In the early 10th century Mosul came under the control of the native Arab [[Hamdanid dynasty]]. From Mosul, the Hamdanids under Abdallah ibn Hamdan and his son [[Nasir al-Dawla]] expanded their control over [[Upper Mesopotamia]] for several decades, first as governors of the Abbassids and later as ''de facto'' independent rulers. A century later they were supplanted by the [[Uqaylid dynasty]].
Mosul was conquered by the [[Seljuq Empire]] in the 11th century. After a period under semi-independent [[atabeg]] such as [[Mawdud]], in 1127 it became the centre of power of the [[Zengid dynasty]]. [[Saladin]] besieged the city unsuccessfully in 1182 but finally gained control of it in 1186. In the 13th century it was captured by the [[Mongols]] led by [[Hulagu Khan]], but was spared the usual destruction since its governor, Badr al-Din Luʾluʾ, helped the Khan in his following campaigns in Syria. After the Mongol defeat in the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] against the [[Mamluk]]s, Badr al-Din's son sided with the latter; this led to the destruction of the city, which later regained some importance but never recovered its original splendor. Mosul was thenceforth ruled by the Mongol [[Ilkhanate]] and [[Jalairid Sultanate]] and escaped [[Timur]]'s destructions.
During 1165 [[Benjamin of Tudela]] passed through Mosul; in his papers he wrote that he found a small Jewish community estimated as 7000 people in Mosul, the community was led by Rabbi Zakkai, presumably connected to the [[Davidic line]]. In 1288–1289, the [[Exilarch]] was in Mosul and signed a supporting paper for [[Maimonides]].<ref name="jews_of_musul_1981">עזרא לניאדו, יהודי מוצל, מגלות שומרון עד מבצע עזרא ונחמיה, המכון לחקר יהדות מוצל, טירת-כרמל: ה'תשמ"א.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Works |first=Herbert A. |last=Davidson |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-19-517321-X |page=560}}</ref> In the early 16th century, Mosul was under the Turkmen federation of the [[Ağ Qoyunlu]], but in 1508 it was conquered by the [[Safavid dynasty]] of Iran.
===Ottomans: 1517 to 1918===
What started as irregular attacks in 1517 was finalized in 1538, when [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Sultan]] [[Suleyman the Magnificent]] [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–55)|added Mosul]] to his empire by capturing it from his archrivals — [[Safavid Persia]].{{sfn|Rothman|2015|page=236}} Thenceforth Mosul was governed by a [[pasha]]. Mosul was celebrated for its line of walls, comprising seven gates with large towers, a renowned hospital (''maristan'') and a covered market (''qaysariyya''), and was also famous for its fabrics and flourishing trades.
Although [[Mesopotamia]] had been conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1533, gains which were confirmed by the [[Peace of Amasya]] (1555) until the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39)|reconquest]] of [[Baghdad]] in 1638, and the [[Treaty of Zuhab|resulting treaty]] of the year after, Ottoman control over Mesopotamia was not decisive,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Stanford J.|last2=Shaw|first2=Ezel Kural|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808|date=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521291637|page=199}}</ref> and the city of Mosul was considered "still a mere fortress, important for its strategic position as an offensive platform for Ottoman campaigns into Iraq, as well as a defensive stronghold and (staging post) guarding the approaches to [[Anatolia]] and to the Syrian coast. Then with the Ottoman reconquest of Baghdad (1638), the [[Liwa (Arabic)|liwa’]] of Mosul became an independent [[wilayah|wilaya]]."<ref name="Kemp1983">{{cite journal |last=Kemp |first=Percy |title=Power and Knowledge in Jalili Mosul |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=1983 |pages=201–12 |doi=10.1080/00263208308700543}}</ref>{{rp |202}} After the Peace of Amasya, the Safavids recaptured most of Mesopotamia one more time during the reign of king [[Abbas I of Persia|Abbas I]] (r. 1588-1629). Amongst the newly appointed Safavid governors of Mesopotamia during those years, was [[Qasem Sultan Afshar]], who was appointed governor of Mosul in 1622.{{sfn|Nasiri|Floor|2008|page=248}}{{sfn|Oberling|1984|pages=582-586}}
Despite being a part of the Ottoman Empire, during the four centuries of Ottoman rule Mosul was considered "the most independent district" within the Middle East, following the Roman model of indirect rule through local notables.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Al-Tikriti |first=Nabil |title=Ottoman Iraq |journal=Journal of the Historical Society |volume=7 |issue=2 |year=2007 |pages=201–11 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-5923.2007.00214.x}}</ref>{{rp |203–4}} "Mosuli culture developed less along Ottoman–Turkish lines than along Iraqi–Arab lines; and Turkish, the official language of the State, was certainly not the dominant language in the province."<ref name="Kemp1983" />{{rp |203}}
In line with its status as a politically stable trade route between the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and the [[Persian Gulf]] the city developed considerably during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Similar to the development of the [[Mamluk]] dynasty in Baghdad, during this time "the [[Al-Jalili family|Jalili family]] was establishing itself as the undisputed master of Mosul", and "helping to connect Mosul with a pre-Ottoman, pre-[[Aq Qoyunlu|Turcoman]], pre-[[Mongol Empire|Mongol]], Arab cultural heritage which was to put the town on its way to recapturing some of the prestige and prominence it had enjoyed under the golden reign of [[Badr al-Din Lu'lu'|Badr ad-Din Lu’lu’]]."<ref name="Kemp1983" />{{rp|203}}
Along with the [[al-Omari|al-Umari]] and Tasin al-Mufti families, the Jalilis formed an "urban-based small and medium gentry and a new landed elite", which proceeded to displace the control of previous rural tribes.<ref>{{Citation |last=Khoury |first=Dina Rizk |title=State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire. Mosul, 1540–1834 |publisher=Cambridge |series=Studies in Islamic Civilization |year=1997 |page=19}}</ref> Such families proceed to establish themselves through private enterprise, solidifying their influence and assets through rents on land and taxes on urban and rural manufacturing.
As well as elected officials, the social architecture of Mosul was highly influenced by the [[Dominican Order|Dominican fathers]] who arrived in Mosul in 1750, sent by [[Pope Benedict XIV]] (Mosul had a large Christian population, predominantly indigenous [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]).<ref name="Woods 2006">{{cite web|title=Iraq Perspectives: Catholics and Dominicans in Iraq|publisher=Dominican Life|last=Woods|first=Richard|year=2006|url=http://www.domlife.org/Justice/Iraq/PerspectivesJanuary06.htm|accessdate=2009-09-13}}</ref> They were followed by the Dominican nuns in 1873. They established a number of schools, health clinics, a printing press and an orphanage. The nuns also established workshops to teach girls sewing and embroidery.<ref>{{cite book|title=Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day|publisher=Gracewing|last=Rasam|first=Suha|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GYC93sfHXAEC&pg=PA138|accessdate=2009-09-13}}</ref> A congregation of Dominican sisters, founded in the 19th century, still had its motherhouse in Mosul by the early 21st century. Over 120 Assyrian Iraqi Sisters belonged to this congregation.<ref name="Woods 2006" />
In the nineteenth century the Ottoman government started to reclaim central control over its outlying provinces. Their aim was to "restore Ottoman law, and rejuvenate the military" as well as reviving "a secure tax base for the government".<ref name="Shields2000">{{cite book |last=Shields |first=Sarah D. |title=Mosul Before Iraq; Like Bees Making Five-Sided Cells |location=Albanay |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-7914-4487-2}}</ref>{{rp|24–26}} In order to reestablish rule in 1834 the Sultan abolished public elections for the position of governor, and began "neutraliz[ing] local families such as the [[Al-Jalili family|Jalilis]] and their class."<ref name="Shields2000" />{{rp|28–29}} and appointing new, non-Maslawi governors directly. In line with its reintegration within central government rule, Mosul was required to conform to new Ottoman reform legislation, including the standardization of [[tariff]] rates, the consolidation of internal taxes and the integration of the administrative apparatus with the central government.<ref name="Shields2000" />{{rp|26}}
This process started in 1834 with the appointment of Bayraktar Mehmet Pasha, who was to rule Mosul for the next four years. After the reign of Bayraktar Mehmet Pasha, the Ottoman government (wishing still to restrain the influence of powerful local families) appointed a series of governors in rapid succession, ruling “for only a brief period before being sent somewhere else to govern, making it impossible for any of them to achieve a substantial local power base.”<ref name="Shields2000" />{{rp|29}} Mosul's importance as a trading center declined after the opening of the [[Suez canal]], which enabled goods to travel to and from India by sea rather than by land across Iraq and through Mosul.
[[File:Mosul.jpg|thumb|A coffee house in Mosul, 1914.]]
Mosul was the capital of [[Mosul Vilayet]] one of the three [[vilayet]]s ([[province]]s) of [[Ottoman Iraq]],with a brief break in 1623 when [[Persia]] seized the city.
During [[World War I]] the [[Ottoman Empire]] sided with [[Germany]], the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] and [[Bulgaria]] against the [[British Empire]], [[France]] and the [[Russian Empire]]. In northern Mesopotamia, northern Syria and south east Turkey the [[Ottomans]] held the armed support of the [[Kurds]], [[Turcomans]], [[Circassians]] and some [[Arab]] groups, while the British and Russians were militarily supported by the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Armenian people|Armenians]] (particularly in the wake of the [[Armenian genocide]] and [[Assyrian genocide]]), and some Arab groups. The Ottomans were defeated, and in 1918 the [[United Kingdom|British]] occupied Mosul, and indeed the whole of Iraq.
===1918 to 2003===
At the end of World War I in October 1918, after the signature of the [[Armistice of Mudros]], British forces occupied Mosul. After the war, the city and the surrounding area became part of the [[Occupied Enemy Territory Administration]] (1918–20), and shortly [[Mandatory Iraq]] (1920–32). This mandate [[Mosul Question|was contested]] by Turkey which continued to claim the area based on the fact that it was under Ottoman control during the signature of the Armistice. In the [[Treaty of Lausanne]], the dispute over Mosul was left for future resolution by the [[League of Nations]]. Iraq's possession of Mosul was confirmed by the [[League of Nations#Mosul|League of Nations]] brokered agreement between [[Turkey]] and Great Britain in 1926. Former Ottoman [[Mosul Vilayet]] eventually became [[Nineveh Province]] of Iraq, but Mosul remained the provincial capital.
[[File:Hadba-16200v.jpg|thumb|Mosul in 1932]]
The city's fortunes revived with the discovery of [[Petroleum|oil]] in the area, from the late 1920s onward. It became a nexus for the movement of oil via truck and pipeline to both [[Turkey]] and Syria. Qyuarrah Refinery was built within about an hour's drive from the city and was used to process tar for road-building projects. It was damaged but not destroyed during the [[Iran–Iraq War]].
The opening of the [[University of Mosul]] in 1967 enabled the education of many in the city and surrounding areas.
After the [[1991 uprisings in Iraq#Northern uprisings|1991 uprisings]] by the Kurds Mosul did not fall within the [[1991 uprisings in Iraq#Kurdish sovereign enclave|Kurdish-ruled area]], but it was included in the northern [[Iraqi no-fly zones|no-fly zone]] imposed and patrolled by the United States and Britain between 1991 and 2003.
Although this prevented [[Saddam]]'s forces from mounting large-scale military operations again in the region, it did not stop the regime from implementing a steady policy of "Arabisation" by which the demography of some areas of Nineveh Governorate were gradually changed. Despite the program Mosul and its surrounding towns and villages remained home to a mixture of [[Arabs]], [[Kurds]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenians]], [[Turkmens]], [[Shabaks]], a few [[Jews]], and isolated populations of [[Yazidi]]s, [[Mandean]]s, [[Kawliya]] and [[Circassians]]. Saddam was able to garrison portions of the 5th Army within the city of Mosul, had [[Mosul International Airport]] under military control, and recruited heavily from the city for his military's officer corps; this may have been due to the fact that most of the officers and generals of the Iraqi Army were from Mosul long before the Saddam regime era.
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