Islam sayfasının kaynağını görüntüle

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{{Islam|expanded=all}}
'''Islam''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}};<ref group=note>There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is {{IPAslink|z}} or {{IPAslink|s}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced {{IPAslink|ɑː}}, {{IPAslink|æ}} or (when the stress is on the first syllable) {{IPAslink|ə}} (Merriam Webster). The most common are {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|əm|,|_|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|əm|,|_|ɪ|z|ˈ|l|ɑː|m|,|_|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɑː|m}} (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,|_|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}} (American Heritage Dictionary).</ref> {{lang-ar|الإسلام}}, {{IPA-ar|alʔisˈlaːm|IPA|ar-al_islam.ogg}}) is an [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[religion]] which professes that there is only [[Tawhid|one and incomparable God]] ([[Allah]])<ref>'''quran.com''': ''[http://quran.com/2/255]''</ref> and that [[Muhammad]] is the [[Khatam an-Nabiyyin|last]] [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|messenger of God]].<ref name="StrongWilder2013">{{cite book|author1=Mary Strong|author2=Laena Wilder|title=Viewpoints: Visual Anthropologists at Work|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFlylwsIDroC&pg=RA1-PT561|date=1 May 2013|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-75613-7|pages=1–}}</ref><ref name="Renard2015">{{cite book|author=John Renard|title=The Handy Islam Answer Book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dpODBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT34|date=19 January 2015|publisher=Visible Ink Press|isbn=978-1-57859-544-0|pages=34–}}</ref><ref name="Daughrity2010">{{cite book|author=Dyron B. Daughrity|title=The Changing World of Christianity: The Global History of a Borderless Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMjEfkqg9twC&pg=PA27|year=2010|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-1-4331-0452-7|pages=27–28}}</ref><ref name="Wunderle2008">{{cite book|author=William D. Wunderle|title=A Manual for American Servicemen in the Arab Middle East: Using Cultural Understanding to Defeat Adversaries and Win the Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5nkublQPPtIC&pg=PA28|year=2008|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing Inc.|isbn=978-1-60239-277-9|pages=28–}}</ref><ref name="KoenigShohaib2014">{{cite book|author1=Harold G. Koenig|author2=Saad Al Shohaib|title=Health and Well-Being in Islamic Societies: Background, Research, and Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsopBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30|date=17 May 2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-05873-3|pages=30–}}</ref> It is the [[Major religious groups#Largest religions|world's second-largest religion]]<ref name=landscape>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape|date=18 December 2012|publisher=Pew Forum}}</ref> and the [[Growth of religion|fastest-growing major religion in the world]],<ref>{{cite news|last1=Burke|first1=Daniel|title=The world's fastest-growing religion is ...|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/living/pew-study-religion/|accessdate=18 April 2015|agency=CNN|date=April 4, 2015}}</ref><ref name=Lippman>{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god |title=No God But God |author=Lippman, Thomas W. |quote=''Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.'' |publisher=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|date=2008-04-07|accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithtoday.html PBS - Islam: Empire of Faith - Faith - Islam Today].</ref> with over 1.7 billion followers<ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf|title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact|publisher=gordonconwell.edu|date= January 2015 |accessdate=2015-05-29}}</ref> or 23% of the global population,<ref name=landscape/> known as [[Muslim]]s.<ref>According to [http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/muslim Oxford Dictionaries], "Muslim is the preferred term for 'follower of Islam,' although Moslem is also widely used."</ref> Islam teaches that [[God in Islam|God]] is [[Tawhid|merciful, all-powerful, and unique]];<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Juan E. Campo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA34 |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|page=34|chapter=Allah}}</ref> and He has guided mankind through [[Islamic holy books|revealed scriptures]], [[Islamic view of miracles|natural signs]], and [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad]]. The primary scriptures of Islam are the [[Quran]], viewed by Muslims as the [[:wikt:verbatim|verbatim]] word of God, and the teachings and normative example (called the ''[[sunnah]]'', composed of accounts called ''[[hadith]]'') of Muhammad ([[Circa|{{circa}}]] 570–8 June 632 CE).

Muslims believe that Islam is the [[Fitra|original, complete and universal version of a primordial faith]] that was revealed many times before through prophets including [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Noah in Islam|Noah]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]].<ref name="People-of-the-Book">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithpeople.html |title=People of the Book |work=[[Islam: Empire of Faith]] |publisher=[[PBS]]|accessdate=2010-12-18}}</ref><ref>Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality. Leiden [u.a.: Brill. Page 177</ref><ref>http://www.cnn.com/2015/10/21/living/yom-kippur-muslims/index.html, retrieved 10-1-2016</ref> As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered and final revelation of God.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bennett |2010|p=101}}</ref> Religious concepts and practices include the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of Islam]], which are obligatory acts of worship, and following [[Sharia|Islamic law]], which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from [[Islamic banking and finance|banking]] and [[zakat|welfare]] to [[Women in Islam|women]] and the [[Islamic ethics#Environmentalism|environment]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|p=17}}</ref><ref>* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b| pp=111,112,118}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> Certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the [[sunnah]] of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life.

Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in [[Mecca]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Watt|first=William Montgomery|authorlink=W. Montgomery Watt|title=Islam and the Integration of Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-17587-6|page=[https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5 5]}}</ref> it quickly spread in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and by the 8th century the [[Caliphate|Islamic empire]] was extended from [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] in the west to the [[Indus River]] in the east. The [[Islamic Golden Age]] refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century when much of the historically [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] was experiencing a [[science in the medieval Islamic world|scientific]], [[History of Islamic economics#Classical Muslim commerce|economic]] and cultural flourishing.<ref name=Saliba>[[George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', pp. 245, 250, 256–7. [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.</ref><ref name=King>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1086/353360 | last1 = King | first1 = David A. | year = 1983 | title = The Astronomy of the Mamluks | url = | journal = Isis | volume = 74 | issue = | pages = 531–555 | ref = harv }}</ref><ref name=Hassan-Decline>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |title=Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html |encyclopedia=Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, August 1–5, 1994 |editor=Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas |publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization ([[ISTAC]])|date=1996 |pages=351–399 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html |archivedate=2 April 2015}}</ref> The [[Spread of Islam|expansion]] of the [[Muslim world]] involved various [[caliphate]]s and [[List of Muslim empires and dynasties|empires]], traders and [[conversion to Islam]] by [[Islamic missionary activity|missionary activities]].<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg.125-258</ref>

Most Muslims are of one of two [[Islamic schools and branches|denominations]]:<ref name="NYT-20160103">{{cite news |last=Harney |first=John |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |date=January 3, 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=January 4, 2016}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20160105-maps">{{cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |date=January 5, 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=January 6, 2016 }}</ref> [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (75–90%)<ref name="Sunni-eb" /> or [[Shia Islam|Shia]] (10–20%).<ref name="Shia" />  Islam is the dominant religion in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], the [[Sahel]],<ref name="pewmuslim12">{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/|title=Muslim Population by Country|publisher=Pew Research Center|work=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|accessdate=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim22">{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-middle-east.aspx|title=Region: Middle East-North Africa|publisher=Pew Research Center|work=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|accessdate=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="pewmuslim32">{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-sub-saharan-africa.aspx|title=Region: Sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=Pew Research Center|work=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|accessdate=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 978-0-85229-956-2 p.306 
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. [http://www.bellbookandcandlepublications.com/greenwoodsvillage/gor/islam.php Ian S. Markham, (A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.)] is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total population. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the [http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/Statistics.htm World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here], as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: [https://foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3835 The List: The World’s Fastest-Growing Religions], Foreign Policy, May 2007.
</ref> [[Central Asia]] and some other parts of Asia.<ref>[http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/31/3731-004.gif Britannica], [http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/02016/images/map_of_religions.png Think Quest], [http://www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/popups/maps/matthews_world/images/w001.jpg Wadsworth.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081214054323/http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/31/3731-004.gif|date=14 December 2008}}</ref> About 13% of Muslims live in [[Indonesia]],<ref name="Miller 2009, pp.8,17">{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|pp=8,17}}</ref> [[Islam_by_country#Table|the largest Muslim-majority country]], 31% in [[Islam in South Asia|South Asia]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193&lpg=PA193&dq=what+percent+of+muslims+live+in+south+asia&source=bl&ots=hN9h8HjBnI&sig=M__FLn_m8fzQS4cyAB5GJhG18WY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUidvHw_7RAhUEPI8KHavICW84ChDoAQhLMAk#v=onepage&q=what%20percent%20of%20muslims%20live%20in%20south%20asia&f=false|title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today|last=Pechilis|first=Karen|last2=Raj|first2=Selva J.|date=2013-01-01|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415448512|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/|title=10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050|last=Street|first=1615 L.|last2=NW|date=2015-04-02|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=2017-02-07|last3=Washington|first3=Suite 800|last4=Inquiries|first4=DC 20036 202 419 4300 {{!}} Main 202 419 4349 {{!}} Fax 202 419 4372 {{!}} Media}}</ref> [[Islam_by_country#Table|the largest population of Muslims in the world]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://thediplomat.com/2016/01/how-south-asia-will-save-global-islam/|title=How South Asia Will Save Global Islam|last=Diplomat|first=Akhilesh Pillalamarri, The|newspaper=The Diplomat|access-date=2017-02-07|language=en-US}}</ref> 23% in the [[Religion_in_the_Middle_East#Islam|Middle East]]-[[Islam in Africa|North Africa]] ([[MENA#Religion|MENA]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population10/|title=Middle East-North Africa Overview|date=7 October 2009|publisher=}}</ref> and 15% in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name="mgmpPRC" /> Sizable Muslim communities are also found in [[Horn of Africa#Religion|Horn of Africa]], [[Islam in Europe|Europe]], [[Islam in China|China]], [[Islam in Russia|Russia]], and the [[Islam in the Americas|Americas]]. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world.

==Etymology and meaning<!--linked from 'Muslim'-->==
[[File:Kaaba at night.jpg|thumb|250px||The [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] is the [[Qibla|direction of prayer]] and destination of pilgrimage for [[Muslim]]s]]
Islam is a verbal noun originating from the [[Semitic root|triliteral root]] [[S-L-M|s-l-m]] which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm Dictionary listing for Siin roots] derived from ''Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon'' via www.studyquran.co.uk</ref> In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVyMAvW9slYC&pg=PA8&dq=surrender+to+will+of+God+islam |author1=Lewis, Barnard |author2=Churchill, Buntzie Ellis |title=Islam: The Religion and The People|publisher=Wharton School Publishing|page=8 |isbn=9780132230858|year=2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaem.org/wp/what-does-islam-mean/|title=What does Islam mean?|work=The Friday Journal|date=2011-02-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314072458/http://www.qaem.org/wp/what-does-islam-mean/|archivedate=2011-03-14}}</ref> ''[[wikt:إسلام#Arabic|Islām]]'' is the verbal noun of [[wikt:أسلم#Arabic|Form IV]] of the root, and means "submission" or "surrender". ''[[Muslim]]'', the word for an adherent of Islam, is the [[active participle]] of the same verb form, and means "one who submits" or "one who surrenders". The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the [[Quran]]. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal state: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He opens his heart to Islam."<ref name="MULTIPLE-REFERENCES">
* {{Cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. | ref=harv }}
</ref> Other verses connect ''Islām'' and ''[[dīn]]'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>{{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. | ref=harv }}</ref> In the [[Hadith of Gabriel]], ''islām'' is presented as one part of a triad that also includes ''[[Iman (concept)|imān]]'' (faith), and ''[[ihsan|ihsān]]'' (excellence).<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780195107999| last = Esposito| first = John L.| title = The Oxford History of Islam| date = 2000-04-06|pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The mosque: the heart of submission|first=Rusmir|last=Mahmutćehajić|year=2006|publisher=Fordham University Press|isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2|page=84}}</ref>

Islam was historically called '''Muhammadanism''' in [[Anglophone]] societies. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be [[Religious offense|offensive]] because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to Jesus Christ in ''Christianity''. Some authors, however, continue to use the term ''Muhammadanism'' as a [[wikt:technical term|technical term]] for the religious system as opposed to the [[theological]] concept of Islam that exists within that system.<ref>Kenneth G. Wilson, ''The Columbia Guide to Standard American English'' (ISBN 0231069898), page 291: Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive.</ref>

==Articles of faith==

{{Main article|Aqidah|Iman (concept)|l2=Iman}}
[[Faith]] ([[Iman (concept)|Iman]]) in the Islamic [[creed]] ([[Aqidah]]) is often represented as the [[Iman (concept)#The six articles of the Islamic faith|six articles of faith]], notably spelled out in the [[Hadith of Gabriel]].

===Concept of God===
[[File:Istanbul, Hagia Sophia, Allah.jpg|thumb|right|Medallion showing the word "[[Allah]]" ([[God]]) in [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]].]]
{{Main article|God in Islam|Allah}}

Islam is often seen as having the simplest doctrines of the major religions.<ref name=Lippman/> Its most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called [[tawḥīd]] ({{lang-ar|توحيد}}). God is described in chapter 112 of the Quran as: "Say, He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him" ({{cite quran|112|1-4|style=nosup|expand=no}}).<ref>
* {{Cite quran|112|1|end=4|style=ref}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=74–76}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|p=22}}
* {{Harvtxt|Griffith|2006|p=248}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Allah, Tawhid | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | author=D. Gimaret | ref=harv }}</ref> Muslims repudiate [[polytheism]] and [[idolatry]], called [[Shirk (Islam)|Shirk]], and reject the Christian doctrine of the [[Trinity]] and divinity of [[Islamic view of Jesus|Jesus]]. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God.<ref>God Created the Universe with the Purpose to Serve Humankind: God Created ...
 By Fateh Ullah Khan Page 298 [https://books.google.com/books?id=uGassqzOsDgC&pg=PA298&dq=allah+is+beyond+comprehension&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SLMGUbiYJOm90QWxroHICg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=allah%20is%20beyond%20comprehension&f=false]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ujcpilaYssC&pg=PA37&dq=allah+is+beyond+comprehension&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SLMGUbiYJOm90QWxroHICg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=allah%20is%20beyond%20comprehension&f=false|title=Islamic Unity and Happiness|author=Turfe, Tallal Alie|page=37|publisher=TTQ, Inc.|year=1985|isbn=9780940368477}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qr53qwS5cmcC&pg=PA37&dq=allah+is+beyond+comprehension&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SLMGUbiYJOm90QWxroHICg&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=allah%20is%20beyond%20comprehension&f=false|title=What is Islam? By Jamaal Zarabozo Page 37|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vC0r6JVvDIoC&pg=PA357&dq=allah+is+beyond+comprehension&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SLMGUbiYJOm90QWxroHICg&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=allah%20is%20beyond%20comprehension&f=false|author1=Agwan, A.R. |author2=Khan, N.K. |title=A - E.|page=357|publisher=Global Vision Publishing|ISBN=9788187746003}}</ref> God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being ''Al-Rahmān'', meaning "The Compassionate" and ''Al-Rahīm'', meaning "The Merciful" (See [[Names of God in Islam]]).<ref name="Ben">{{Cite book|last=Bentley |first=David |title=The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book |publisher=William Carey Library |date=September 1999 |isbn=0-87808-299-9 }}</ref>

Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's sheer command, "'Be' and so it is,"<ref>
* {{Cite quran|2|117|style=ref}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |title=Islām |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |accessdate=2010-08-25}}
</ref> and that the [[purpose of life|purpose of existence]] is to worship God.<ref>
* {{cite web|url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence.html |title=Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence |publisher=Patheos.com |accessdate=2011-01-29}}
* {{Cite quran|51|56|style=ref}}
</ref> He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.<ref>
* {{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |title=Islām |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |accessdate=2010-08-25}}
* {{Cite quran|2|186|style=ref}}
</ref> There are no intermediaries, such as [[clergy]], to contact God who states, "I am nearer to him than (his) [[jugular vein]]."<ref>{{Cite quran|50|16|style=ref}}</ref> God consciousness is referred to as [[Taqwa]].

''[[Allāh]]'' is the term with no [[plural]] or [[gender]] used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ''{{transl|ar|ISO|[[ʾilāh]]}}'' ({{lang-ar|إله}}) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |title=God |work=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=PBS|accessdate=2010-12-18}}
* "Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking [[Christian]]s and [[Jew]]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | ref=harv }}
</ref> Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], "Khodā" in [[Persian language|Persian]] or ''{{transl|Urdu|ALA-LC|Ḵẖudā}}'' in [[Urdu]].

===Angels===
{{Main article|Islamic view of angels}}
[[File:Israfil1.png|thumb|right|[[Islamic calligraphy]] of the Archangel [[Israfil]] (reflects upon how [[angel]]s are most commonly represented in Islam).]]
Belief in [[angel]]s is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel ({{lang-ar|ملك}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|malak}}'') means "[[Courier|messenger]]", like its counterparts in [[Hebrew]] (''malʾákh'') and [[Greek language|Greek]] (''angelos''). According to the [[Quran]], [[angels]] do not possess [[free will]], and therefore worship and obey [[God]] in total obedience. Angels' duties include communicating [[revelation]]s from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's [[soul]] at the time of death. Muslims believe that angels are made of light. They are described as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."<ref>
* {{Cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=26–28}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Malā'ika | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=W. Madelung | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Angel | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Gisela Webb | ref=harv }}
</ref> Some scholars have emphasized a metaphorical reinterpretation of the concept of angels.<ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|author=Nidhal Guessoum|title=Islam's Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=zaL3AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT165&dq=angels+islam+metaphor+science&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=angels&f=false|date=30 October 2010|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85773-075-6}}</ref> Pictorial depictions of angels are generally avoided in Islamic Art, as the idea of giving form to anything immaterial is not accepted.<ref name="Baksh2007">{{cite book|author=Kaiyume Baksh|title=Islam and Other Major World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CFKYFcosJUsC&pg=PA163|year=2007|publisher=Trafford Publishing|isbn=978-1-4251-1303-2|pages=163–}}</ref> Muslims therefore do not generally share the perceptions of angelic pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western Art.

Additionally, another kind of being that is sapient in Islam is called [[Jinn]], who are believed to be invisible to humans, including the [[Devil in Islam|Satan]]s.

===Revelations===
[[File:FirstSurahKoran_(fragment).jpg|thumb|right|The first [[Sura|chapter]] of the Quran, ''[[Al-Fatiha]]'', consisting of seven verses.]]
{{Main article|Quran|Wahy|Islamic holy books}}
{{See also|History of the Quran}}

The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by [[God]] to various prophets. [[Muslim]]s believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the ''[[Tawrat]]'' ([[Torah]]) and the ''[[Injil]]'' ([[Gospels]]), had become [[tahrif|distorted]]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted">
* Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|pp=6,12}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002|pp=4–5}}
* {{Harvtxt|Peters|2003|p=9}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last1=Buhl |first1=F|last2=Welch |first2=A.T| ref=harv }}* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tahrif | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh | ref=harv }}
</ref> The [[Quran]] (literally, "Reading" or "Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest [[Arabic literature|literary]] work in the [[Arabic language]].<ref>Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.</ref><ref>Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.</ref>

Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to [[Muhammad]] by God through the [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|archangel Gabriel]] (''Jibrīl'') on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=17,18,21}}</ref> While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (''[[sahabah]]''), although the prime method of transmission was orally through [[Hafiz (Quran)|memorization]].<ref name="al faruqi">{{cite journal|last=Al Faruqi|author2=Lois Ibsen|title=The Cantillation of the Qur'an|journal=Asian Music|year=1987|issue=Autumn – Winter 1987|pages=3–4}}</ref>

The Quran is divided into 114 [[sura]]s, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 ''[[ayah|āyāt]]'', or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at [[Mecca]], are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later [[Medina]]n suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>

The Quran is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|p=79}}</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'' ("reports"), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as ''[[tafsir]]''.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=79–81}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Tafsir | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> The set of rules governing proper pronunciation is called ''[[tajwid]]''.

Muslims usually view "the Quran" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Quran.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Teece|2003|pp=12,13}}
* {{Harvtxt|Turner|2006|p=42}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | ref=harv }}: The word ''Quran'' was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are [[Quran#Etymology and meaning|two different theories]] about this term and its formation.
</ref>

===Prophets and sunnah===
[[File:Al-Anbiya.png|thumb|The Arabic word for prophets preceded by the honorific "peace be upon them".]]
{{Main article|Prophets in Islam|Sunnah|Hadith}}

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam ({{lang-ar|أنۢبياء}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|anbiyāʾ}}'' ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Quran, the prophets were instructed by God to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. [[Islamic theology]] says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered [[prophets in Islam]], including [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]], [[Islamic view of Noah|Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Islamic view of Moses|Moses]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Momem|1987|p=176}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>

Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law bearing prophet (''[[Seal of the prophets|Seal of the Prophets]]'') to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the [[Sunnah]] (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<ref>* ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Hadith | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=J. Robson | ref=harv}}* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Sunna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=D. W. Brown | ref=harv}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as verbatim words of God quoted by Muhammad but is not part of the Quran.

A hadith involves two elements- a chain of narrators, called [[Hadith studies#Sanad and matn|sanad]], and the actual wording, called [[Hadith studies#Sanad and matn|matn]]. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration, as "authentic" or "correct", called ''[[Hadith terminology#Ṣaḥīḥ|Sahih]]'' ({{lang-ar|صَحِيْح}}), "good", called ''[[Hadith terminology#Ḥasan|Ḥasan]]'' ({{lang-ar|حَسَن}}) or "weak", called ''[[Hadith terminology#Ḍaʻīf|Ḍaʻīf]]'' ({{lang-ar|ضَعِيْف}}) among others. [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]]<ref name="sahih-bukhari.com">[http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/ Read, Study, Search Online]. Sahih Bukhari. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.</ref> collected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith that passed the tests that codified them as authentic into his book [[Sahih al-Bukhari]],<ref name="sahih-bukhari.com"/> which is considered by many to be the most [[Hadith terminology#Terminology relating to the authenticity of a hadith|authentic]] source after the Quran.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nyMKDEAb4GsC&dq=The+Canonization+of+Al-Bukhari+and+Muslim&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Canonization of Al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon] by Jonathan Brown, [[Brill Publishers|BRILL]], 2007</ref><ref name="Muqaddimah">''Muqaddimah Ibn al-Salah'', pg. 160-9 Dar al-Ma'aarif edition</ref>

===Resurrection and judgment===
{{Main article|Qiyama}}

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", ''[[Qiyamah|Yawm al-Qiyāmah]]'' ({{lang-ar|يوم القيامة}}) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and [[tribulation]]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Quran and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of [[Ulama|scholars]]. The Quran emphasizes [[Resurrection of the Dead|bodily resurrection]], a break from the [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n understanding of death.<ref>
* "Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003)
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | ref=harv }}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | ref=harv }}
</ref>

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned to ''[[Jannah]]'' (paradise) or ''[[Jahannam]]'' (hell). The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8)." The Qurʼan [[Islamic views of sin|lists several sins]] that can condemn a person to [[hell]], such as [[Kafir|disbelief]] in God ({{lang-ar|كفر}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|kufr}}''), and dishonesty; however, the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the [[Islamic views on sin|sins]] of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals,<ref>Animals in Islam By Basheer Ahmad Masri Page 27</ref><ref>What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam:Second Edition: Second Edition By John L. Esposito Page 130</ref> will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view [[jannah|heaven]] as a place of joy and bliss, with Qurʼanic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Smith|2006|p=89}}; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565
* "Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Garden | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Asma Afsaruddin | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Paradise | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>

''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' is also identified in the Quran as ''Yawm ad-Dīn'' ({{lang-ar|يوم الدين}}), "Day of Religion";<ref>{{cite quran|1|4|style=ref}}</ref> ''as-sāʿah'' ({{lang-ar|الساعة}}), "the Last Hour";<ref>{{cite quran|6|31|style=ref}}</ref> and ''al-Qāriʿah'' ({{lang-ar|القارعة}}), "The Clatterer".<ref>{{cite quran|101|1|style=ref}}</ref>

===Divine will===
{{Main article|Qadar}}
The concept of divine will is referred to as ''al-qadā wa'l-qadar'' ({{lang-ar|قدر}}), which literally derives from a root that means ''to measure''. Everything, good and bad, is believed to have been decreed.<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Cohen-Mor|2001|p=4}}: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."&nbsp;'&nbsp;"* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Fate | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ahmet T. Karamustafa | ref=harv }}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref>

==Acts of worship==
{{See also|Five Pillars of Islam}}
There are five basic religious acts in Islam, collectively known as 'The Pillars of Islam' (''arkan al-Islam''; also ''arkan ad-din'', "pillars of religion"), which are  considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed ([[shahadah]]), (2) daily prayers ([[salat]]), (3) almsgiving ([[zakah]]), (4) fasting during [[Ramadan]], and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca ([[hajj]]) at least once in a lifetime.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Hajj - ReligionFacts|url = http://www.religionfacts.com/hajj|website = www.religionfacts.com|accessdate = 2015-11-21}}</ref> Both [[Shia Islam|Shia]] and [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] sects agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.<ref>[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1859?_hi=32&_pos=3 Pillars of Islam], Oxford Islamic Studies Online</ref> Apart from these, Muslims also perform other religious acts. Notable among them are charity ([[Sadaqah]]) and [[Quran reading|recitation of the Quran]].

===Testimony===
[[File:Silver Rupee Akbar.jpg|thumb|right|Silver coin of the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Akbar]] with inscriptions of the Islamic declaration of faith]]
{{main article|Shahadah}}

The [[Shahadah]],<ref>[[Hossein Nasr]] The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272
</ref> which is the basic [[creed]] of Islam that must be recited under [[oath]] with the specific statement: "''{{transl|ar|ISO|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is no god but [[God in Islam|God]], Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>N Mohammad (1985), The doctrine of jihad: An introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3(2): 381-397</ref> This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to [[convert to Islam]] are required to recite the creed.<ref>
* Farah (1994), p.135
* Momen (1987), p.178
* "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals'' (2004)
</ref>

===Prayer===
{{main article|Salat}}
{{See also|Mosque|Jumu'ah}}
[[File:Mosque.jpg|thumb|right|Muslim men [[prostration|prostrating]] during prayer in the [[Umayyad Mosque]], [[Damascus]].]]

Ritual prayers are called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: [[Wikt:صلاة|صلاة]]). Salat is intended to focus the mind on [[God]], and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and [[worship]]. Performing prayers five times a [[day]] is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the [[Arabic language]], and consist of verses from the Quran.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=18,19}}
* {{Harvtxt|Hedáyetullah|2006|pp=53–55}}
* {{Harvtxt|Kobeisy|2004|pp=22–34}}
* {{Harvtxt|Momen|1987|p=178}}
</ref> The prayers are done with the chest in direction of the [[kaaba]] though in the early days of Islam, they were done in direction of [[Jerusalem]]. The act of supplicating is referred to as [[dua]].

A mosque is a [[places of worship|place of worship]] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name ''masjid''. A large mosque for gathering for Friday prayers or Eid prayers are called [[Jama Masjid|masjid jāmi]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th century Travel Guide |last=Budge |first=E.A. Wallis |authorlink = E. A. Wallis Budge |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |date=June 13, 2001 |pages=123–128 |isbn=0-486-41721-2}}</ref> Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the [[ummah|Muslim community]] as a place to meet and study. In Medina, [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]], or the Prophet's Mosque, was also a place of refuge for the poor.<ref>Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: edited by Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon Page 615 [https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615&dq=prophets+mosque+poor&hl=en&sa=X&ei=v8YoU5itFcSqhAf74ID4Dw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=prophets%20mosque%20poor&f=false]</ref> Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as [[minaret]]s.<ref>
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Masdjid | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]] |last1=Pedersen|first1=J. |last2=Hillenbrand |first2=R.|last3=Burton-Page|first3=J.|authorlink3=J. Burton-Page| ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Mosque | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>

===Charity===
{{main article|Zakat|Sadaqah}}

"Zakāt" ({{lang-ar|زكاة}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|zakāh}}'' "[[wikt:alms|alms]]") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those in debt (or [[bonded labour]]) and for the (stranded) traveller.<ref>Qurʼan, Surat al-Tawbah 9:60 "Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or [[bonded labour]]) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller - an obligation (imposed) by Allah . And Allah is Knowing and Wise."</ref><ref>The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia edited by K. A. Mohamed Ariff [https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&pg=PA55&dq=zakat+is+for&hl=en&sa=X&ei=QYUqUdHyHKWV0QXxuIGwBg&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=zakat%20is%20for&f=false]</ref> It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/95564/analysis-a-faith-based-aid-revolution-in-the-muslim-world|title=Analysis: A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world?|agency=[[IRIN]]|accessdate=2013-09-24|date=2012-06-01}}</ref> The amount of zakat to be paid on [[Financial capital|capital assets]] (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40) per year,<ref name="AhmedGianci">Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, ''Zakat'', Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy, p. 479</ref> for people who are not poor.

[[Sadaqah]] means optional charity which is practiced as religious duty and out of generosity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Said |first=Abdul Aziz |title=Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |year=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location= |isbn=9780415770118 |page=145|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Both the Quran and the hadith have put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people,<ref>{{cite book |editor=Matt Stefon|title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0|page=72}}</ref> and have urged the Muslims to give more as an act of optional charity.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|2|177|style=ref}}
*  {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|p=90}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> The Quran says: Spend something (in charity) out of the substance which We have bestowed on you, before Death should come to any of you ({{cite quran|63|10|s=ns|b=n}}). One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that [[God in Islam|God]] expects men to be generous with their wealth and not to be miserly (Quran {{cite quran|107 |1|e=7|s=ns|b=n}}).<ref>{{cite book |author=Holt, P. M., Ann K. S. Lambton, and [[Bernard Lewis]] |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |year=2000 | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=978-0-521-21946-4 |page=32}}</ref> Accumulating wealth without spending them to address the needs of the poor is generally prohibited and admonished.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Matt Stefon|title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0|page=93}}</ref> Another kind of charity in Islam is [[waqf]] which means perpetual religious endowment.

===Fasting===
{{main article|Sawm}}
{{Further information|Sawm of Ramadan}}

Fasting ({{lang-ar|صوم}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ṣawm}}'') from food and drink, among other things, must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of [[Ramadan]]. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|2|184|style=ref}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=90,91}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>

===Pilgrimage===
[[File:Al-Haram mosque - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|right|Pilgrims at the [[Masjid al-Haram]] in [[Mecca]] during [[Hajj]]]]
{{main article|Hajj|Umrah}}

The obligatory Islamic [[pilgrimage]], called the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ḥajj}}'' ({{lang-ar|حج}}), has to be performed during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of ''[[Dhu al-Hijjah]]'' in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending a day and a night in the tents in the desert plain of Mina, then a day in the desert plain of Arafat praying and worshiping God, following the foot steps of Abraham; then spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert sand in the desert plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically [[Stoning of the Devil|stoning the Devil]] recounting Abraham's actions;<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4xIijTTxX9UC&pg=PA279&dq=steps+of+hajj&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yPeQUryEH4Gjhge03oDgCg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=steps%20of%20hajj&f=false|title=Getting the Best Out of Hajj By Abu Muneer Ismail Davids|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19&dq=hajj+follows+the+foot+steps+of+abraham&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6LkkUdCJH4aG0AWqn4CYDw&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=hajj%20follows%20the%20foot%20steps%20of%20abraham&f=false|title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians By F. E. Peters Page 20|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Islam and the Glorious Ka'abah: None By Sayed M Alhuseini, Farouq M. Alhuseini Page 61 [https://books.google.com/books?id=kz41FZmUivcC&pg=PA61&dq=hajj+follows+the+foot+steps+of+abraham&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6LkkUdCJH4aG0AWqn4CYDw&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=hajj%20follows%20the%20foot%20steps%20of%20abraham&f=false]</ref> then going to Mecca and walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]] which Muslims believe was built as a place of worship by Abraham; then walking seven times between [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Safa]] and [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Marwah]] recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, while she was looking for water for her son Ismael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Farah|1994|pp=145–147}}
* {{Harvtxt|Goldschmidt|2005|p=48}}{{citation not found}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Hajj | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> Another form of pilgrimage, [[Umrah]], can be undertaken at any time of the year.

===Recitation and memorization of the Quran===
[[File:Men reading the Koran in Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria.jpg|thumb|right|Men reading the Quran in a [[mosque]]]]
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or the part of the Quran as acts of virtue. [[Tajwid|Reciting the Quran in the correct manner]] has been described as an excellent act of worship.<ref name=Nigosian-70>{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A.  |title= Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=my7hnALd_NkC&pg=PA70 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn= 0-253-21627-3 |page=70}}</ref> Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran at the month of [[Ramadan]].<ref name=Stefon-42>{{cite book |editor=Matt Stefon|title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0|pages=42–43}}</ref> In Islamic societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.<ref name=Stefon-42/> Those who memorize the whole Quran is called ''[[hafiz (Quran)|hafiz]]'' who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.<ref name=Nigosian-70/> Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it during regular prayer.
{{clear}}

==Society==
===Family life===
{{See also|Islam and children|Women in Islam|Marriage in Islam}}
[[File:Minaret roof in constanta.jpg|thumb|180px|The dome of the [[Constanța Mosque|Carol I Mosque]] in [[Constanța]], [[Romania]], topped by the [[Islamic crescent]]]]
For Muslim communities, family is the basic component of society, and is responsible for the wellbeing of its members. In a Muslim family, the birth of a child is attended with some religious ceremonies. Immediately after the birth, the words of [[Adhan]] is pronounced in the right ear of the child. In the seventh day, the aquiqa ceremony is performed in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.<ref name=Nigosian-120>{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A.  |title= Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=my7hnALd_NkC&pg=PA120 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=[[Indiana]] |isbn= 0-253-21627-3 |page=120}}</ref> The head of the child is also shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of the child's hair is donated to the poor.<ref name=Nigosian-120/> Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly members of family also undertake the task of teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge, and religious practices to the children.<ref name=Campo-136>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Juan E. Campo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA136 |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|page=136}}</ref> [[Marriage in Islam|Marriage]], which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Waines|2003|pp=93–96}}
* The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|p=79}}</ref>
Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{cite book|last=Newby|first=Gordon D.|title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam|year=2002|publisher=Oneworld|location=Oxford|isbn=1851682953|page=141|edition=Repr.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization|year=2001|publisher=HarperOne|location=New York|isbn=0060507144|page=68}}</ref> [[Polyandry]], a form of [[polygamy]], where a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/|title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands?|work=14 Publications|accessdate=27 December 2015}}</ref> With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim Weddings. Generally in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai | title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |url= |accessdate= |year=2000 |publisher=The Islamic Texts Society |location=[[Cambridge]] |isbn=978-0946621842|pages=92–3}}</ref>

Certain religious rites are performed during and after the [[Islamic view of death|death of a Muslim]]. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the [[Shahada]] as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After the death, the body is bathed properly by the members of the same gender and then enshrouded in a threefold white garment called ''kafan''.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Matt Stefon|title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |location=[[New York City]] |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0|pages=83}}</ref> Placing the body on a [[bier]], it is first taken to a mosque where funeral prayer is offered for the dead person, and then to the graveyard for burial.

===Etiquette and diet===
{{Main article|Adab (behavior)|Islamic dietary laws}}

Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "''[[As-Salamu Alaykum|as-salamu `alaykum]]''" ("peace be unto you"), saying ''[[Basmala|bismillah]]'' ("in [[Names of God|the name of God]]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|Islamic hygienic]] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. [[Khitan (circumcision)|Circumcision of male offspring]] is also practiced in Islam. [[Islamic funeral|Islamic burial rituals]] include saying the ''[[Salat al-Janazah]]'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a [[Grave (burial)|grave]]. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, [[carrion]], and [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as [[halal]] food.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|5|5|style=ref}}
* {{Harvtxt|Curtis|2005|p=164}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|p=111}}
* Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]
* Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html The Dietary Laws]
* Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm Various types of the prayer]
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Slaughter | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ersilia Francesca | ref=harv }}
</ref>

===Social responsibilities===
{{Main article|Islam and humanity}}
In a Muslim society, various social service activities are performed by the members of the community. As these activities are instructed by [[Muslim scriptures|Islamic canonical texts]], a Muslim's religious life is seen incomplete if not attended by service to humanity.<ref name=Stefon92>{{cite book |editor=Matt Stefon|title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |location=[[New York City]] |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0|page=92}}</ref> In fact, In Islamic tradition, the idea of social welfare has been presented as one of its principal values.<ref name=Stefon92/> The {{cite quran|2|177|s=ns|b=n}} verse of the Quran is often cited to encapsulate the Islamic idea of social welfare.<ref>{{cite book |first1=John |last1= Corrigan |first2=Frederick |last2= Denny |first3=Martin S |last3= Jaffee |title=Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VahYCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245 |accessdate=22 January 2016 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location= |isbn=9781317347002 |page=245}}</ref><ref group=note>The verse reads: 'It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity, to fulfill the contracts which we have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God fearing'</ref> Similarly, duties to parents, neighbors, relatives, sick people, the old, and the [[Minority group|minority]] have been defined in Islam. Respecting and obeying one's [[parent]]s, and taking care of them especially in their old age have been made a religious obligation.<ref name=Campo-136/><ref>[[Muhammad Shafi Usmani]]. ''[[Maariful Quran]]''. English trans. By [[Muhammad Taqi Usmani]]</ref> A two-fold approach is generally prescribed with regard to the duties to the [[Kinship|relatives]]: keeping rood relation with them, and offering financial help if necessary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Sheha |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Human Rights in Islam and Common Misconceptions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRqe3iPwsTkC&pg=PA65 |location=Riyadh |pages=65}}</ref> Severing ties with them has been admonished. Regardless of a neighbor's religious identity, Islam tells the Muslims to treat their [[Neighbourhood|neighboring people]] in the best possible manners and not to cause any difficulty to them.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Abdelwahab |editor1-last=Bouhdiba |title=The Individual and Society in Islam: Volume 2 of The different aspects of Islamic culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xek6yZPAQjAC&pg=PA238 |accessdate= |year=1998 |publisher=UNESCO |location= |isbn=9789231027420 |page=238}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=al-Sheha |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Human Rights in Islam and Common Misconceptions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRqe3iPwsTkC&pg=PA75 |accessdate= |year= |publisher= |location=Riyadh |isbn= |pages=74–5}}</ref> About the [[Orphan|orphaned children]], the Quran forbids harsh and oppressive treatment to them while urging kindness and justice towards them. It also rebukes those who do not honor and feed the orphaned children (Quran {{cite quran|89|17-18|s=ns|b=n}}).

===Moral behavior===
{{Main article|Morality in Islam}}
The Quran and the [[sunnah]] of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life. Proper moral conduct, good deeds, righteousness, and [[Moral character|good character]] come within the sphere of the moral guidelines.<ref name=Campo-216>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Juan E. Campo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA216 |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|page=216}}</ref> In Islam, the observance of moral virtues is always associated with religious significance because it elevates the religious status of a [[Mumin|believer]]<ref name=Nigosian-116>{{cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S. A.  |title= Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=my7hnALd_NkC&pg=PA116 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=[[Indiana]] |isbn= 0-253-21627-3 |page=116}}</ref> and is often seen as a supererogatory act of worshipping.<ref name=Leaman-140>{{cite encyclopedia |editor= Oliver Leaman |encyclopedia= The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA140|publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=9-78-0-415-32639-1|page=140}}</ref> One typical Islamic teaching on [[morality]] is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded the highest excellence.<ref name=Nigosian-116/> The Quran says: 'Repel (evil) with what is best' ({{cite quran|41|34|s=ns|b=n}}). Thus, a Muslim is expected to act only in good manners as bad manners and deeds earn vices.<ref name=Campo-215>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Juan E. Campo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA215|year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|page=215}}</ref> The fundamental moral qualities in Islam are [[justice]], [[forgiveness]], righteousness, kindness, honesty, and piety.<ref name=Campo-216/> Other mostly insisted moral virtues include but not limited to charitable activities, tolerance, fulfillment of promise, [[modesty]] and [[humility]], decency in speech, trustworthiness, [[Sabr|patience]], truthfulness, [[anger management]], and sincerity of intention.

As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a good character as Muhammad said: 'The best among you are those who have the best manners and character' ({{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|8|73|56}}). In Islam, justice is not only a moral virtue but also an obligation to be fulfilled under all circumstances.<ref>{{cite book |last= Khadduri |first= Majid |authorlink= |title= The Islamic Conception of Justice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=td3XttHLGsEC&pg=PA10 |accessdate= |year=1984 |publisher= The Johns Hopkins University Press |location= |isbn=9780801869747 |page=}}</ref> The Quran and the hadith describe God as being kind and merciful to His creatures, and tell people to be kind likewise. As a virtue, forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam, and is regarded as an important Muslim practice.<ref name=Leaman-27>{{cite encyclopedia |editor= Oliver Leaman |encyclopedia= The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA214|publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1|page=214}}</ref> About modesty, Muhammad is reported as saying: ' Every religion has its characteristic, and the characteristic of Islam is modesty'.<ref name=modesty-1>Imam Kamil Mufti (2006). ''[http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/21/modesty-part-1/ Modesty: An Overview.]'' IslamReligion.com Retrieved 19 Aug 2016.</ref>

===Government===
{{Main article|Political aspects of Islam|Islamic state|Islam and secularism|Islamic democracy|Sultanate|Khanate|Imamate|Emirate|Mansa (title)|Caliphate}}

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the [[ulema|scholars]] function as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to [[Islamic economic jurisprudence]], but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets.<ref>Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice edited by Nimat Hafez Barazangi, M. Raquibuz Zaman, Omar Afzal Page 5 [https://books.google.com/books?id=0QtcBRWs__AC&pg=PA5&dq=currently+no+government+applies+Islamic+economic+jurisprudence&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Y5waUf6PKI2p0AXq-4HQDw&ved=0CGUQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=currently%20no%20government%20applies%20Islamic%20economic%20jurisprudence&f=false]</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNvX7bg1Hq8C&pg=PA121&dq=government+bonds+in+iran&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fqUaUeWlD-mn0AX64YHwDg&sqi=2&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=government%20bonds%20in%20iran&f=false|title=Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Iran: A Country Study: A Country Study edited by Glenn E. Curtis, Eric Hooglund Page 196 [https://books.google.com/books?id=yPf_f7skJUYC&pg=PA196&dq=government+bonds+in+iran&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fqUaUeWlD-mn0AX64YHwDg&sqi=2&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=government%20bonds%20in%20iran&f=false]</ref>

==Law and jurisprudence==
{{Fiqh}}
{{Main article|Sharia|Fiqh}}
The ''Shariʻah'' (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law and constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief.<ref name="BritannicaShariah">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}</ref> The study of Islamic law is called ''[[Fiqh]]'', or "Islamic jurisprudence". The methods of jurisprudence used are known as ''[[usul al-fiqh]]'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). Much of it has evolved with the objective to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, known as [[bid‘ah]]. Four fundamental evidence, codified by [[ash-Shafi'i]], used are, in order of precedence: the Quran, the Hadith (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (''[[ijma]]''), and analogical reasoning (''[[qiyas]]''). Rulings over actions can be categorized as those that are obligatory (''[[fardh]]'') recommendanded (''[[mustahabb]]''), permissible (''[[mubah]]''), not recommended (''[[makrooh]]'') and prohibited (''[[haraam]]'').

The Quran set the rights, the responsibilities and the rules for people and for societies to adhere to. Muhammad provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books, showing how he practically implemented those rules in a society.

Many of the Sharia laws that differ are devised through [[Ijtihad]] where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadiths of [[Islamic prophet]] Muhammad regarding a similar case.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gMxjJqurmiAC&pg=PA30&dq=development+of+schools+of+thought+hanifa&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vvMMUe7WLs62hAevmIBw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=development%20of%20schools%20of%20thought%20hanifa&f=false|title=Islam Vs. West: Fact Or Fiction? By Abubakr Asadulla - Page 30|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Islamic State Practices, International Law And The Threat From Terrorism By Javaid Rehman Page 20 [https://books.google.com/books?id=es9Sunv_y2MC&pg=PA20&dq=development+of+schools+of+thought+hanifa&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vvMMUe7WLs62hAevmIBw&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=development%20of%20schools%20of%20thought%20hanifa&f=false]</ref> As Muhammad's companions went to new areas,<ref>Muwatta Imam Malik, translated by professor Mohammad Rabimuddin. ISBN 81-7151-097-3 published by Nusrat Ali Nasri for Kitab Bhavan in New Delhi-110002 India, Page iv</ref> they were pragmatic and in some cases continued to use the same ruling as was given in that area during pre-Islamic times. If the population felt comfortable with it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did not conflict with the Quran or the Hadith. This made it easier for the different communities to integrate into the Islamic State and that assisted in the quick expansion of the Islamic State.

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and [[Diplomacy|foreign relations]], to issues of daily living. The Quran defines ''[[hudud]]'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Quran and Sunnah also contain laws of [[Islamic Inheritance jurisprudence|inheritance]], [[Islamic marital jurisprudence|marriage]], and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for [[Sawm|fasting]], [[Sadaqah|charity]], and prayer. For example, the division of [[Islamic Inheritance jurisprudence|inheritance]] is specified in the Quran, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.<ref>"al-Mar'a". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref>

===Scholars===
{{Main article|Ulama}}
[[File:Карло Боссоли. Татарская школа для детей.jpg|thumb|right|[[Imam]] teaches the [[Quran]] in [[Crimea]], (1850s, lithograph by [[Carlo Bossoli]])]]

Islam, like Judaism, has no [[clergy]] in the [[sacerdotal]] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ''ulema'' ({{lang-ar| علماء}}) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of [[Islamic studies|Islamic sciences]]. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a [[mufti]] ({{lang-ar|مفتي}}) and often issues judicial opinions, called [[fatwa]]s. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a [[faqih]] ({{lang-ar|فقيه}}). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a [[muhaddith]]. A [[qadi]] is a judge in an Islamic court. [[Honorific]] titles given to scholars include [[shiekh]], [[mullah]] and [[maulvi]]. [[Imam]] ({{lang-ar|إمام}}) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services.

===Schools of jurisprudence===
[[File:Madhhab Map3.png|thumb|right|The main Islamic [[madh'hab]]s (schools of law) of Muslim countries or distributions|400px]]
{{Main article|Madhab}}
A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a ''madhab'' ({{lang-ar|مذهب}}). The four major Sunni schools are the [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]] and sometimes [[Ẓāhirī]] while the two major Shia schools are [[Ja'fari]] and [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]]. Each differ in their methodology, called [[Usul al-fiqh]]. The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called [[taqlid]]. The term ''ghair muqallid'' literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and by extension do not have a [[madhab]].<ref>Encyclopedeia of Eminent Thinkers - Page 38, K. S. Bharathi - 1998</ref> The practice of an individual interpretating law with independent reasoning is called [[ijtihad]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Weiss|2002|pp=3,161}}</ref>

===Economics===
{{Main article|Islamic economic jurisprudence}}

To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, [[Islamic economic jurisprudence]] encourages trade,<ref>
* International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 203
* {{Cite quran|4|29|style=ref}}
</ref> discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans ([[usury]]; the term is ''[[riba]]'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]).<ref>{{cite book | title=The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments | author=Karim, Shafiel A. | year=2010 | publisher=Brown Walker Press | location=Boca Raton, FL | isbn=978-1-59942-539-9}}</ref><ref>Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock By Joanna Gray, Orkun Akseli Page 97</ref> Therefore, wealth is taxed through [[Zakat]], but trade is not taxed. [[Usury]], which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.<ref>
* Ibn Majah Vol 3 Hadith 2289
* International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 202
* Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and Practice By Noureddine Krichene Page 119
</ref> Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.<ref>
* Abu Daud Hadith 2015
* Ibn Majah Vold 3 Hadith 2154
* The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment By Zamir Iqbal, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, Hossein Askari Page 75
</ref>

Grabbing other people's land is also prohibited. The prohibition of [[usury]] has resulted in the development of [[Islamic banking]]. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then in 634, [[Umar]] formally established the welfare state [[Bayt al-mal]]. The [[Bayt al-mal]] or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The [[Bayt al-mal]] ran for hundreds of years under the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] in the 7th century and continued through the [[Umayyad]] period and well into the [[Abbasid]] era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.<ref>Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 254 [https://books.google.com/books?id=HJE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA254&dq=umar+welfare+state&hl=en&sa=X&ei=F60kUfj6MtGN0wW4y4GQDw&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=umar%20welfare%20state&f=false]</ref><ref>The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus</ref><ref>Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 252 [https://books.google.com/books?id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA252&dq=umar+Bayt+al-mal&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HrEkUYfnOYSk0AWlqYCYDw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=umar%20Bayt%20al-mal&f=false]</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnT_zhqEe5cC&pg=PA539&dq=umar+Bayt+al-mal&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HrEkUYfnOYSk0AWlqYCYDw&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=umar%20Bayt%20al-mal&f=false|title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths By Said Öztürk Page 539|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref>

===Jihad===
{{Main article|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of [[wikt:disapprobation|disapprobation]]". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the [[Devil]], and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.<ref>Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18</ref> Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.<ref>Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18</ref><ref>Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad</ref> Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|p=93}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=jihad | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and [[Sufism|Sufis]], distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual [[self-improvement|self-perfection]], and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Firestone|1999|p=17}}
* "Djihad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.
</ref>

Within [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-believer/non-Muslim/Muslim combatants. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Firestone|1999|p=17}}</ref><ref name="jihad">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Djihād |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |ref=harv}}</ref> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a [[general mobilization]].<ref name="jihad" /> For most [[Twelver|Twelver Shias]], [[offensive jihad]] can only be declared by a [[Imamah (Shi'a twelver doctrine)|divinely appointed leader]] of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]]'s<ref name="Islam 2003 pp 72">Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72</ref> occultation in 868 AD.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Sachedina|1998|pp=105,106}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main article|History of Islam|Spread of Islam}}
{{wide image|Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]] region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam}}

===Muhammad (610–632)===
{{Main article|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}}
{{See also|Early social changes under Islam}}
Muslim tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) as the [[seal of the prophets]].<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|p=12}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 [[Common Era|CE]], according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God, conveyed to him through the [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|archangel Gabriel]] (''Jibril''). Muhammad's [[Sahaba|companions]] memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Quran.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|18|110|style=ref}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | last1=Buhl |first1=F|last2=Welch |first2=A.T|  ref=harv }}
</ref>

During this time, [[Muhammad in Mecca]] preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, the leading Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers. This resulted in the [[Migration to Abyssinia]] of some Muslims (to the [[Aksumite Empire]]). Many early converts to Islam were the poor and former slaves like [[Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi]]. The Meccan élite felt that Muhammad was destabilising their social order by preaching about one God and about racial equality, and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and to their slaves.<ref>The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English
 By Ali Ünal Page 1323 [https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323&dq=Bilal+ibn+Rabah+al-Habashi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JQYUUdmuC-HN0QWIwYDIDQ&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Bilal%20ibn%20Rabah%20al-Habashi&f=false]</ref><ref>[[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], Slaves and Slavery</ref><ref>Bilal b. Rabah, [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]</ref><ref>The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p.36</ref>

After 12 years of the [[persecution of Muslims by the Meccans]] and the [[Meccan boycott of the Hashemites]], Muhammad's relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") to the city of [[Medina]] (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (''[[Muhajirun]]''), [[Muhammad in Medina]] established his political and [[Theocracy|religious authority]]. A state was established{{by whom|date=July 2015}} in accordance with [[Islamic economic jurisprudence]]. The [[Constitution of Medina]] was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community—the [[Ummah]].<ref>Serjeant (1978), p. 4.</ref><ref>Watt. ''Muhammad at Medina''. pp. 227-228 Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date - specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624). Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in ''The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World'': Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. ''Annali dell'Islam, Volume I''. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. ''Skizzen und Vorabeiten'', IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." ''Israel Oriental Studies'' 4 (1974): p. 45.</ref>

The Constitution established:

* the security of the community
* religious freedoms
* the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons)
* the security of women
* stable tribal relations within Medina
* a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict
* parameters for exogenous political alliances
* a system for granting protection of individuals
* a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws and have their own judges.<ref name="B. Serjeant 1978">R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref name="Watt 1964 p.4">Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.</ref><ref name="Constitution of Medina">{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/15118390/Madinah-Peace-Treaty|title=Constitution of Medina|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref>

All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624 - a Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the [[Battle of Uhud]], which ended inconclusively.

The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the [[Battle of the Trench]] (March–April 627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Peters|2003|pp=78,79,194}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}
</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he had united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a single religious [[polity]].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">
{{cite encyclopedia
| title=Muhammad
| encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
|last1=Buhl
|first1=F
|last2=Welch
|first2=A.T
| ref=harv
}}
</ref>

The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the [[Salaf]], with the companions of Muhammad being known as the [[Sahaba]]. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith [[Abu Hureyrah]], recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah.

===Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)===
[[File:Dome of the Rock1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dome of the Rock]] built by [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]]; completed at the end of the [[Second Fitna]].]]
{{Further information|Muslim conquests|First Fitna|Second Fitna}}

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. [[Abu Bakr]], a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first [[caliph]]. Under Abu Bakr, Muslims put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the [[Ridda wars]], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a)|p=57}}
* {{Harvtxt|Hourani|2003)|p=22}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002)|p=32}}
* {{Harvtxt|Madelung|1996|p=43}}
* {{Harvtxt|Tabatabaei|1979|pp=30–50}}
</ref> The Quran was compiled into a single volume at this time.

Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] as the caliph, followed by [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]], [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] and [[Hasan ibn Ali]]. The first four caliphs are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]").<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Rightly Guided Caliphs|editor=John L. Esposito|encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2014|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-2018|subscription=yes}}</ref> Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the parts of the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] territories.<ref>See
* {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|p=74}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J.| ref=harv }}</ref>

When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, [[the election of Uthman]] as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. This led to the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] (the "First Fitna") over who should be caliph. Ali was assassinated by [[Kharijites]] in 661. To avoid further fighting, the new caliph [[Hasan ibn Ali]] signed a [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty|peace treaty]], abdicating to [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiyah]], beginning the [[Umayyad dynasty]], in return that he not name his own successor.<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref> These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the first four leaders, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia.<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> Mu'awiyah appointed his son, [[Yazid I]], as successor and after Mu'awiyah's death in 680, the "[[Second Fitna]]" broke out, where [[Husayn ibn Ali]] was killed at the [[Battle of Karbala]], a significant event in Shia Islam.

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the [[Maghreb]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>Donald Puchala, ''Theory and History in International Relations'', page 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the [[Byzantine–Sassanid Wars]], often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.<ref>Esposito (2010), p.38</ref><ref>Hofmann (2007), p.86</ref>

The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the [[Tabi‘un]], followed by the [[Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in]]. The Caliph [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] set up the influential committee, "[[The Seven Fuqaha of Medina]]",<ref>The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 505</ref><ref>Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page 54-59</ref> headed by [[Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr]].<ref>The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 522</ref> [[Malik ibn Anas]] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the [[Muwatta Imam Malik|Muwatta]],<ref name="bewley.virtualave.net">{{cite web|url=http://bewley.virtualave.net/muwcont.html|title=Al-Muwatta'|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref> as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref name="Coulson">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=coulson+history+islamic+law&source=bl&ots=QVA59sVI8G&sig=stT7OrQHTIkIJ6mgK5-kQzT0gAg&hl=en&ei=durLTOa5KI_QjAe06rnYBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=History of Islamic Law by N. J. Coulson page 103|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 5 By Martijn Theodoor Houtsma page 207 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC&pg=PA207&dq=Muwatta+consensus+of+the+opinions+scholars&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vqQLUaSqMKy20QXX1YHwDA&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muwatta%20consensus%20of%20the%20opinions%20scholars&f=false]</ref><ref>[[Moshe Sharon]], ''Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon''. Page 264 [https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=Muwatta+consensus+of+the+opinions+scholars&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vqQLUaSqMKy20QXX1YHwDA&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Muwatta%20consensus%20of%20the%20opinions%20scholars&f=false]</ref>

The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented non-Arab converts (''[[mawali]]''), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]] in 750.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}; {{Harvtxt|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}</ref>

===Classical era (750–1258)===
During this time, the [[Delhi Sultanate]] took over northern parts of Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted [[Volga Bulgaria]] to Islam. Many Muslims also went to [[Islam in China|China]] to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the [[Song Dynasty]].<ref name=china>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml|title=Islam in China|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref>

[[File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|thumb|The eye, according to [[Hunain ibn Ishaq]] from a manuscript dated circa 1200.]]
This era is sometimes called the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]".<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|pp=80,92,105}}
* {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977b|pp=661–663}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lewis|1993|p=84}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. | ref=harv}}</ref> [[Public hospital]]s established during this time (called [[Bimaristan]] hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Encyclopedia of the History of Islamic Science: Technology, alchemy and life|last=Micheau|first=Françoise|pages=991–2|ref=harv}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985–1007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |title=The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate |publisher=Planetseed.com |accessdate=2011-01-29}}</ref> and issued the first medical diplomas to license [[Doctor of Medicine|doctors]].<ref name=Alatas>{{Cite journal|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–32|doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|year=2006|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD.|first=S. M.|last=Imamuddin|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1981|isbn=90-04-06131-2|page=169|ref=harv}}</ref> The [[Guinness World Records]] recognizes the [[University of Al Karaouine]], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Guinness Book Of Records|year=1998|isbn=0-553-57895-2|page=242}}</ref> The [[doctorate]] is argued to date back to the [[Ijazah|licenses to teach]] in Muslim [[law school]]s.<ref name=Makdisi>{{Cite journal|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]|doi=10.2307/604423|publisher=American Oriental Society|ref=harv|jstor=604423}}</ref> Standards of [[experiment]]al and [[Quantification (science)|quantification]] techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,<ref name=Ahmed>Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 42, 84. {{quote|"Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."}}</ref> were introduced. An important pioneer in this, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] is regarded as the father of the modern [[scientific method]] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".<ref name="Haq">[[Nomanul Haq|Haq, Syed]] (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISSN 1703-7603. Retrieved 2014-10-22.</ref><ref>[[G. J. Toomer]]. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/228328?pg=464 Review on JSTOR, Toomer's 1964 review of Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg Zur Physik''] Toomer p.464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method."</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm|work=BBC News|title=The 'first true scientist'|author=Al-Khalili, Jim|date=4 January 2009|accessdate=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gorini|first=Rosanna|title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision|url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf|journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine|volume=2|issue=4|pages=53–55|date=October 2003|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-09-25|ref=harv}}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref name=Ahmed/> It is argued that the data used by [[Copernicus]] for his [[heliocentric]] conclusions was gathered and that [[Al-Jahiz]] proposed a theory of [[natural selection]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/30/religion.world|title=It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton|work=The Guardian|accessdate=2013-09-24|location=London|first=Jim|last=Al-Khalili|date=2008-01-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html|title=Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2011-12-13|location=London|first=Jim|last=Al-Khalili|date=2008-01-29}}</ref> [[Rumi]] wrote some of the finest Persian [[poetry]] and is still one of the best selling poets in America.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm|title=The roar of Rumi - 800 years on|work=BBC News|accessdate=2011-08-10|first=Charles|last=Haviland|date=2007-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml|title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi|publisher=BBC|date=2009-09-01|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Legal institutions introduced include the [[Trust law|trust]] and [[charitable trust]] ([[Waqf]]).<ref>{{Harv|Gaudiosi|1988}} {{citation not found}}</ref><ref>{{Harv|Hudson|2003|p=32}} {{citation not found}}</ref>

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> During the early Abbasid era, the major [[Six major Hadith collections|Sunni hadith collections]] were compiled by scholars such as [[Muhammad al-Bukhari|Bukhari]] and [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj|Muslim]] while major [[The Four Books|Shia hadith collection]]s by scholars such as [[Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni|Al-Kulayni]] and [[Ibn Babawayh]] were also compiled. The [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]] was formed from the teachings of [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]] while the four Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s, the [[Hanafi]], [[Hanbali]], [[Maliki]] and [[Shafi'i]], were established around the teachings of [[Abū Ḥanīfa]], [[Ahmad bin Hanbal]], [[Malik ibn Anas]] and [[al-Shafi'i]] respectively. In the 9th century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Weiss|2002|pp=xvii,162}}</ref> [[Al-Tabari]] and [[Ibn Kathir]] completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the [[Tafsir al-Tabari]] in the 9th century and the [[Tafsir ibn Kathir]] in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers [[Al-Farabi]] and [[Avicenna]] sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like [[Al-Ghazali]] argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>
* Lapidus (2002), p.160
* Waines (2003) p.126,127
</ref>

Caliphs such as [[Mamun al Rashid]] and [[Al-Mu'tasim]] made the [[mutazilite]] philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called [[kalam]], which refers to [[dialectic]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2010|p=88}}</ref> Many orthodox Muslims rejected [[mutazilite]] doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit [[Baghdad]] prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Doi |first1= Abdur Rahman |title= Shariah: The Islamic Law |edition= |page=110|year=1984|publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |location=London|isbn= 0-907461-38-7|ref=}}</ref> The other branch of kalam was the [[Ash'ari]] school founded by [[Al-Ash'ari]].

Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of [[Islamic views on sin|sin]] based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as [[Hasan al-Basri]] would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf (Sufism).<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=90,91}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by [[Al-Ghazali]], who developed the model of the [[Tariqa|Sufi order]]—a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=104,105}}</ref>

The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the [[Qarmatians]] unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/371782/Mecca/37835/History#ref887188|title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref> The [[Mongol Empire]] put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=103–143}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Abbasid Dynasty | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>

===Pre-Modern era (1258–20th century)===
[[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abdülmecid II]] was the last Caliph of Islam from the [[Ottoman dynasty]].]]

Islam spread with Muslim trade networks and Sufi orders activity that extended into [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], [[Central Asia]] and the [[Malay archipelago]].<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. | ref=harv }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Spread of Islam|url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf|accessdate=2 November 2013}}</ref> Under the [[Ottoman Empire]], Islam spread to [[Southeast Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |date=6 May 2008 |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref> The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier [[immigration]] began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and [[Chinese culture|culture]] while [[Nanjing]] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. pg 292. United States of America: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dillon|first1=Michael|title=China's Muslim Hui Community|edition=|page=37|year=1999|publisher=Curzon|location=|isbn=0-7007-1026-4|ref=}}</ref>

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while [[Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf|Taqi al-Din]] founded an observatory in [[Istanbul]] and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.<ref>Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. pg170. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8</ref> The [[Reconquista]], launched against Muslim [[Taifa|principalities]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], succeeded in 1492. By the 19th century the [[British Raj|British Empire]] had formally ended the Mughal dynasty in India.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref> The [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire disintegrated]] after [[World War I]] and the [[Caliphate]] was abolished in 1924.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |title=New Turkey |newspaper=Al-Ahram Weekly |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |issue=488|accessdate=2010-05-16}}</ref>

The majority and oldest group among Shia at that time, the [[Zaydis]], named after the great grandson of Ali, the scholar [[Zayd ibn Ali]], used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.<ref name="books.google.co.uk-mae">Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal Page 122 [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElRUvoVRxYC&pg=PA118&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false]</ref><ref name="Arab-Israeli Conflict Page 917">The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts Page 917 [https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false]</ref><ref name="The Iraq Effect Page 91">The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey Page 91 [https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false]</ref> The Shia [[Safavid dynasty]] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321</ref> The ensuing mandatory [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam]] for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] and [[Ismaili]] sects.<ref>"Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica</ref> [[Nader Shah]], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Shiism by calling it the Jaafari Madh'hab.<ref>Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered, Ernest Tucker, Iranian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1/4, Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era (1994), pp. 163-179, Published by: International Society for Iranian Studies [http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4310891?uid=3738032&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21103813818403]</ref>

A revival movement during this period was an 18th-century [[Salafi]] movement led by [[Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab|Ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as [[Wahhabi]], their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] and [[Ibn al-Qayyim]], the movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later [[bidah|innovations]]. Their zeal against [[Idolatry in Islam|idolatrous]] shrines led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and Medina]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2010|p=146}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah|url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO|newspaper=Libyan Herald|date=4 September 2013|accessdate=2 November 2013}}</ref> In the 19th century, the [[Deobandi]] and [[Barelwi]] movements were initiated.

===Modern times (20th century–present)===
{{Further information|Islamic revival}}
[[File:Flag of OIC.svg|thumb|The flag of the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].]]
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and [[Indonesia]], to the [[Caribbean]], forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the [[Americas]].<ref>Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8</ref> Muslim immigrants began arriving, many as [[guest workers]] and largely from former colonies, in several Western European nations since the 1960s.

There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Nigosian|2004|pp=41}}</ref> [[Liberal Islam]] is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and [[human rights]]. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and they stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=118,119,179}} and {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=823–830}}</ref>
Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.<ref name="Rippin 2001, p.288">{{Harvtxt|Rippin|2001|p=288}}</ref>

Secular powers such as the Chinese [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guards]] closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans,<ref>*{{Cite journal|last=Goldman|first=Merle|title=Religion in Post-Mao China|journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|volume=483|pages=146–156|year=1986|doi=10.1177/0002716286483001013|issue=1|ref=harv}}</ref> and [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Communist Albania]] became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.<ref>Page18*{{Wikicite |ref="Elsie2000" |reference=Elsie, Robert. 2000. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture]''. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-570-1.}}</ref> About half a million Muslims were killed in [[Khmer Rouge|Cambodia]] by communists who, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html|title=Weakness in numbers|work=TIME|date=October 10, 2003|accessdate=2013-09-24|first=Andrew|last=Perrin}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> In [[Turkey]], the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in [[Tunisia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm|title=Huge rally for Turkish secularsim|work=BBC News|accessdate=2011-12-06|date=2011-04-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm|title=Tunisia moves against headscarves|work=BBC News|accessdate=2011-12-06|date=2011-10-15|first=Heba|last=Saleh}}</ref>

[[Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani]], along with his acolyte [[Muhammad Abduh]], have been credited as forerunners of the [[Islamic revival]].<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'', Thomson Gale, 2004</ref> [[Abul A'la Maududi]] helped influence modern [[political Islam]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam|title=Political Islam: A movement in motion|work=Economist Magazine|accessdate=1 January 2014|date=3 January 2014}}</ref> [[Islamist]] groups such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820|title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?|work=BBC News|accessdate=2011-08-10|date=2011-08-09}}</ref> In [[Iran]], [[Iranian Revolution|revolution]] replaced a [[secularism|secular]] regime with an [[Islamic state]]. In [[Turkey]], the Islamist [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AK Party]] has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the [[Arab Spring]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html?_r=2&hpw|title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule|newspaper=New York Times|accessdate=2011-12-08|date=2011-12-03|first=David D.|last=Kirkpatrick}}</ref> The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim countries]], was established in 1969 after the burning of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=BBC News |date=2010-12-26 |accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref>

Piety appears to be deepening worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/#.UkEq_SyHuLf|title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast|publisher=[[MSNBC]]|date=2008-10-18|accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref><ref name=economist/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html|title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam|newspaper=New York Times|accessdate=2011-08-15|first=Michael|last=Slackman|date=2008-12-23}}</ref> In many places, the prevalence of the [[hijab]] is growing increasingly common<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html|title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil|newspaper=New York Times|accessdate=2011-08-15|first=Michael|last=Slackman|date=2007-01-28}}</ref> and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1592576-2,00.html|title=Why Indonesia matters|work=TIME|accessdate=2013-09-24|first=Hannah|last=Beech|date=2007-02-22}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges.<ref name=economist>{{cite book|url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354|title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit|work=[[The Economist]]|accessdate=2011-08-15|date=2007-06-28}}</ref>

It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "driven primarily by differences in fertility rates and the size of youth populations among the world's major religions, as well as by people switching faiths."<ref name=pew2015/> Perhaps as a sign of these changes, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in [[East Africa|East]] and [[West Africa]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Onishi|first=Norimitsu|title=Rising Muslim power causes unrest in Nigeria and elsewhere|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/01/world/rising-muslim-power-in-africa-causes-unrest-in-nigeria-and-elsewhere.html|accessdate=2011-11-17|newspaper=New York Times|date=2001-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwrn.org/articles/14286/?&place=eastern-africa|title=Muslims say their faith growing fast in Africa|publisher=wwrn.org|accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref>

==Denominations==
{{Main article|Islamic schools and branches}}
{{See also|Shia–Sunni relations}}
[[File:Islam branches and schools.svg|thumb|centre|An overview of the major schools and branches of Islam.|750px]]

===Sunni===
{{Sunni Islam|collapsed=1}}
{{Main article|Sunni Islam}}
[[File:Sahih Al-Bukhari in English.png|thumb|right|[[Sahih Al-Bukhari]], one of the [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah|six Sunni hadith books]].]]
The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all Muslims<ref name="Sunni-eb">
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |accessdate= 2013-09-24 |work=[[Pew Research Center]] |quote=Of the total Muslim population, 10-13% are Shia Muslims and 87-90% are Sunni Muslims.|date=October 7, 2009}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3&dq=Sunni+Islam&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2DLuTujOEcesrAej29DdCA&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Sunni%20Islam&f=false Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide] "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
* {{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |title=Sunni |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.|accessdate=December 20, 2012}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |accessdate=2010-08-25 |work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population...}}</ref> and is arguably the world's largest religious denomination.<ref>{{cite news|author1=CARL BIALIK|title=Muslims May Have Overtaken Catholics a While Ago|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/numbers/muslims-may-have-overtaken-catholics-a-while-ago-315/|accessdate=5 September 2015|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=9 Apr 2008}}</ref> Sunni Muslims also go by the name ''Ahl as-Sunnah'' which means "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]".<ref name=Lippman/><ref name="Britannica"/><ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithtoday.html |title=Islam Today |work=[[Islam: Empire of Faith]] (2000)|quote=''Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's third fastest growing religion. |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]|accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/understanding-islam |title=Understanding Islam |work=Susan Headden |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=April 7, 2008 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |work= |publisher=[[Adherents.com]] |accessdate=2007-07-03}}</ref> These hadiths, recounting Muhammad's words, actions, and personal characteristics, are preserved in traditions known as [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah]] (six major books).

Sunnis believe that the first four [[caliph]]s were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Quran and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights.

The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow four [[madhhab|madh'habs]] (schools of thought): [[Hanafi]], [[Hanbali]], [[Maliki]] and [[Shafi'i]], established around the teachings of [[Abū Ḥanīfa]], [[Ahmad bin Hanbal]], [[Malik ibn Anas]] and [[al-Shafi'i]] respectively. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|pp=275,306}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Shariah | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}</ref> [[Ahl al-Hadith]] is a movement that deemphasized sources of jurisprudence outside the quran and sunnah, such as informed opinion (ra'y).

The [[Salafi movement]] claim to take the first three generations of Muslims, known as the [[salaf]], as exemplary models.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-salafi.htm Salafi Islam] GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.</ref>
In the 18th century, [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] led a salafi movement, referred by outsiders as [[Wahhabism]], in modern-day [[Saudi Arabia]].

The [[Barelvi]] movement, a revivalist movement of [[Sunni]] Islam with over 200 million followers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-908?rskey=Qlx8eH&result=1|title=Barelvi - Oxford Reference|work=oxfordreference.com}}</ref> emerged as part of debate of how to redeem India from the British. The movement emphasizes primacy of Islamic law in all matters with adherence to [[Sufi]] practices and personal devotion to [[Muhammad]] and has addressed leading issues for Muslims since partition.<ref name="journals.cambridge.org">Usha Sanyal. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century]. Modern Asiantudies (1998), Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095357101?rskey=Qlx8eH&result=3|title=Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah|work=oxfordreference.com}}</ref> The [[Deobandi movement]] is an Indo-Pakistani reformist movement that is much influenced by the Wahhabi movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-522?rskey=ChItec&result=1|title=Deobandis - Oxford Reference|work=oxfordreference.com}}</ref> The Barelvi and Deobandi movements of [[Sunni]] Islam accept the validity of all four Sunni madh'habs.<ref name="Kabir2010">{{cite book|author=Nahid Afrose Kabir|title=Young British Muslims: Identity, Culture, Politics and the Media|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCGrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60|date=26 October 2010|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-4373-8|pages=60–}}</ref>

===Shia===
{{Shia Islam|collapsed=1}}
{{Main article|Shia Islam}}
{{See also|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
[[File:Kerbela Hussein Moschee.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Imam Husayn Shrine|Imam Hussein Shrine]] in [[Karbala]], Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.]]
The Shia constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.<ref name=Shia>See
* {{cite web|url= http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |date=2009-10-07 |accessdate=2013-09-24 |work=[[Pew Research Center]] |quote=The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10-13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10-15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population.}}
* {{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a |title=Shia |publisher=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs |quote=Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide...|accessdate=December 5, 2011}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |accessdate=2010-08-25 |work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|quote=Shia Islam represents 10-20% of Muslims worldwide...}}
</ref>

While the Sunnis believe that a Caliph should be elected by the community, Shia's believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], as his successor and only certain descendants of Ali could be Imams. As a result, they believe that [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] was the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs [[Abu Bakr]], [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]] and [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]. Another point of contention is the cursing of figures revered by Sunnis. However, [[Jafar al-Sadiq]] himself disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Zayd ibn Ali]] revered Abu Bakr and [[Umar]].<ref name="Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand 1989, p37">''The waning of the Umayyad caliphate'' by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, p37, p38</ref><ref name="Religion Vol 1987, p243">''The Encyclopedia of Religion'' Vol.16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p243.</ref> More recently, [[Grand Ayatollah]] [[Ali al-Sistani]] condemned the practice.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/01/iran-iraq-fatwa-sunni-shiite-insults.html#|title=Shiite leaders forbid insults against Sunnis|publisher=Al-monitor|accessdate=2016-01-06|date=2014-07-11}}</ref>

Shia Islam has several branches, the most prominent being the [[Twelvers]] (the largest branch), [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidis]] and [[Ismaili]]s. Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as Imams. After the death of Imam [[Jafar al-Sadiq]] who is considered the sixth Imam by the [[Twelvers]] and the [[Ismaili]]'s, the Ismailis recognized his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as his successor whereas the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) followed his other son [[Musa al-Kadhim]] as the seventh Imam. The [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydis]] consider [[Zayd ibn Ali]], the uncle of Imam [[Jafar al-Sadiq]], as their fifth Imam, and follow a different line of succession after him.

Other smaller groups include the [[Mustaali|Bohra]] as well as the [[Alawites]] and [[Alevi]].<ref>
* Kramer (1987), [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Alawis.htm&date=2009-10-26+02:18:33 Syria's Alawis and Shi''ism pp.237–254]
* [http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Shia branches]
</ref> Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as [[Ghulat]].

===Sufism===
{{Main article|Sufism}}
{{See also|Sufi–Salafi relations}}
[[File:Mevlana Konya.jpg|thumb|right|Mawlānā [[Rumi]]'s tomb, [[Konya]], Turkey]]
[[Sufism]], or tasawwuf ({{lang-ar|تصوف}}), is a [[mystical]]-[[ascetic]] approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct [[Divine presence|personal experience of God]]. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Classical Sufi scholars have focused on the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref><ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|p=302}}
* {{Harvtxt|Malik|2006|p=3}}
* {{Harvtxt|Turner|1998|p=145}}
* {{cite web| url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0061) |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |title=Afghanistan: A Country Study - Sufism |year=1997 |accessdate=2007-04-18}}
</ref><ref>Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson. ''The Principles of Sufism''. Amal Press. 2008.</ref> [[Hasan al-Basri]] was inspired by the ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by [[Al-Ghazali]]. Traditional Sufis, such as [[Bayazid Bastami]], [[Jalaluddin Rumi]], [[Haji Bektash Veli]], [[Junaid Baghdadi]], and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of [[Muhammad]].<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/corrections_popular.html|title= Corrections of Popular Versions of Poems From Rumi's Divan}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/self-discovery.html|title=Rumi and Self-Discovery|author=Ibrahim Gamard}}</ref><ref name="chittick">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/?id=LI0kjBlXS5UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=william+chittick+origins+of+sufism#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Sufism: A Beginner's Guide|publisher=|accessdate=17 January 2015|isbn=9781780740522|author1=Chittick|first1=William C|year=2008}}</ref><ref name="nasr">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=IgVtq3kNCrYC&pg=PA192&dq=origins+of+tasawwuf#v=onepage&q=origins%20of%20tasawwuf&f=false|title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines|publisher= |accessdate=17 January 2015|isbn=9780791415153|author1=Nasr|first1=Seyyed Hossein Nasr|date=1993-01-01}}</ref>

Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in central Asia and South Asia. Central Asia is considered to be a center of Sufism. Sufism has played a significant role in fighting against Tsars of Russia and Soviet colonization. Here, Sufis and their different orders are the main religious sources.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |first=Farhat |last=Alvi |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|jstor=20071709|title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations}}</ref> Sufism is also strong in African countries such as [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Senegal]], [[Chad]] and [[Niger]].<ref name="Pew"/><ref>"Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal", Babou, Cheikh Anta, ''The International Journal of African Historical Studies'', v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 184–6</ref>

Sufi practices such as veneration of saints have faced stiff opposition from followers of [[Salafism]] and [[Wahhabism]], who have sometimes physically attacked Sufi places of worship, leading to deterioration in [[Sufi–Salafi relations]].

===Other denominations===
* [[Ahmadiyya]] is an Islamic reform movement (with Sunni roots) founded by [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8711026.stm|title=Who Are the Ahmadi? | publisher=bbc.co.uk | accessdate=6 October 2013}}</ref> that began in [[India]] in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to 20 million<ref name="ahmadi">
* {{Cite book|title=Breach of Faith|quote=Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate|volume=|publisher=Human Rights Watch|location=|isbn=|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yi8ONIe1fv4C&pg=PA8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-jgWU83CCIOZyAPJjoDYCQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=March 29, 2014|date=June 2005}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgtgGhMUgIUC&pg=PA72&hl=en&sa=X&ei=e_E2U7GXMIrJ0QXou4CIAw&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Asian Religions in British Columbia|quote=The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world|author1=Larry DeVries |author2=Don Baker |author3=Dan Overmyer |accessdate=March 29, 2014|isbn=978-0-7748-1662-5|publisher=University of Columbia Press}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA23&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3fE2U56QCLGz0QXop4CoBg&ved=0CFkQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|quote=The total size of the Ahmadiyya community in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million|author=Juan Eduardo Campo|publisher=|page=24|accessdate=March 29, 2014|isbn=0-8160-5454-1}}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2012/01/20/january-20-2012-ahmadiyya-muslims/10124/|title=Ahmadiyya Muslims | publisher=pbs.org | accessdate=6 October 2013}}
* A figure of 10-20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also [[Ahmadiyya by country]].</ref> Muslims around the world. Ahmad claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies concerning the arrival of the 'Imam Mahdi' and the 'Promised Messiah'.
* The [[Ibadi]] is a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of [[Kharijite]] and is practiced by 1.45 million Muslims around the world.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15&dq&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3mBRU42-JOen0AXF-IG4DA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q&f=false | title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences | pages=14–15 | accessdate=7 January 2015 | author=Robert Brenton Betts}}</ref> Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.
* [[Mahdavia]] is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri
* The [[Quran alone|Quranists]] are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith.
* [[Yazdânism]] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to [[Kurdistan]] by [[Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir]] in the 12th century.
* There are also black Muslim movements such as the [[Nation of Islam]] (NOI), [[Five-Percent Nation]] and [[Moorish scientists]].

===Non-denominational Muslims===
{{Main article|Nondenominational Muslim}}

Non-denominational Muslims is an [[umbrella term]] that has been used for and by [[Muslim]]s who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific [[Islamic denomination]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |newspaper=[[New Europe (newspaper)|New Europe]] |location=Brussels |access-date=20 October 2015 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims – those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.}}</ref><ref name="Longton">{{cite news|last1=Longton|first1=Gary Gurr|title=Isis Jihadist group made me wonder about non-denominational Muslims|url=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Isis-Jihadist-group-wonder-non-denominational/story-21340790-detail/story.html|accessdate=21 October 2015|publisher=The Sentinel|date=2014|quote=THE appalling and catastrophic pictures of the so-called new extremist Isis Jihadist group made me think about someone who can say I am a Muslim of a non-denominational standpoint, and to my surprise/ignorance, such people exist. Online, I found something called the people's mosque, which makes itself clear that it's 100 per cent non-denominational and most importantly, 100 per cent non-judgemental.}}</ref><ref name="Kirkham">{{cite news|last1=Kirkham|first1=Bri|title=Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive|url=http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive|accessdate=21 October 2015|date=2015|quote=Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a '''non-denominational Muslim''', and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.}}</ref><ref name="Pollack">{{cite book|last1=Pollack|first1=Kenneth|title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |date=2014 |page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more '''nondenominational Muslims'''}}</ref> Prominent figures who refused to identify with a particular Islamic denomination have included [[Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cughtai|first1=Muhammad Ikram|title=Jamāl Al-Dīn Al-Afghāni: An Apostle of Islamic Resurgence|date=2005|page=454|quote=Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al- Afghani revised to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam.}}</ref> [[Muhammad Iqbal]]<ref name=Jones2011>{{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Justin|title=Shi'a Islam in Colonial India: Religion, Community and Sectarianism|pages=25–26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrioNz8_EwwC&pg=PA25}}</ref> and [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ahmed|first1=Khaled|title=Was Jinnah a Shia or a Sunni?|url=http://www.thefridaytimes.com/24122010/page27.shtml|accessdate=23 October 2015|agency=The Friday Times}}</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|date=August 9, 2012|work=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=4 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Robert|title=Christianity, Islam, and the West|page=55|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=akWUGyN7fwEC&pg=PA55&dq=%22just+a+muslim%22+non+denominational&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22just%20a%20muslim%22%20non%20denominational&f=false|quote=40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tatari|first1=Eren|title=Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets|date=2014|page=111|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA111|quote=Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Lopez|first1=Ralph|title=Truth in the Age of Bushism|date=2008|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vuNfXxnYWPIC&pg=PA65|quote=Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."}}</ref> The [[Pew Research Center]] reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in [[Kazakhstan]] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.<ref name="Pew"/>

==Demographics==
{{Main article|Muslim world|Ummah}}
{{See also|List of countries by Muslim population}}
[[File:Islam percent population in each nation World Map Muslim data by Pew Research.svg|thumb|400px|World Muslim population by percentage ([[Pew Research Center]], 2014).]]

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57&nbsp;billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it is estimated that over 75–90% are [[Sunni]] and 10–20% are [[Shia]]<ref name="mgmpPRC">
{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |title=Islām |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html CIA] retrieved 21 Dec 2011</ref> with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 57 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|p=11}}</ref> and [[Arabs]] account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Muslims in the United States |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |authorlink=|author2=Kone, Kassim|volume=|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=|isbn=0-313-32825-0|page=172}}</ref> The number of Muslims worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to 551&nbsp;million in 1970,<ref>{{Cite book
 | last = Whaling
 | first = Frank
 | title = Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day
 | publisher = T & T Clark
 | year = 1987
 | page = 38
 | isbn = 0-567-09452-9}}
</ref> and tripled to 1.6&nbsp;billion by 2010.<ref name=pew2015>{{cite web| publisher=Pew Research Center | title=The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050 | url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/| date=April 2, 2015 | access-date=March 18, 2016}}</ref>

The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1087 |title=Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxfordislamicstudies.com |date=2008-05-06 |accessdate=2010-05-16}}{{Subscription needed}}</ref> Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in [[Asia]], with over 683&nbsp;million adherents in [[Indonesia]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], and [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="USN&WR">{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm|title=Secrets of Islam|work= [[U.S. News & World Report]]|accessdate=2013-09-24}} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, [[San Diego State University]] (2005).</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|pp=15,17}}</ref> In the [[Middle East]], non-Arab countries such as [[Turkey]] and [[Iran]] are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in [[Africa]], [[Egypt]] and [[Nigeria]] have the most populous Muslim communities.<ref name="Islam_by_country">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim
|title=Number of Muslim by country|publisher=nationmaster.com|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref>

Most estimates indicate that the [[People's Republic of China]] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html |title=The World Factbook – China |publisher=CIA World Factbook |accessdate=2009-06-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |publisher=State.gov |accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2008-07/09/content_6831389.htm |title=NW China region eyes global Muslim market |newspaper=China Daily |date=2008-07-09 |accessdate=2009-07-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=1922 |title=Muslim Media Network |publisher=Muslim Media Network |date=2008-03-24 |accessdate=2009-07-14}}</ref> However, data provided by the [[San Diego State University]]'s International Population Center to ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' suggests that China has 65.3&nbsp;million Muslims.<ref>[http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm Secrets of Islam], [[U.S. News & World Report]]. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, [[San Diego State University]].</ref> Islam is the second largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many [[Europe]]an countries,<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=2,43}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
* {{cite web| url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html | title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents | publisher=Adherents.com | accessdate=2007-01-09}}
* {{Cite news| title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm | publisher=BBC | work=BBC News | date=2005-12-23 | accessdate=2013-09-24}}
* {{cite web| title=Religion In Britain | url= http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/ethnicity/focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion/2006-edition/focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion---focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion-2006---full-report.pdf | publisher=Office for National Statistics | work=National Statistics | date=2003-02-13 | accessdate=2006-08-27}}
</ref> and is slowly catching up to that status in the [[Americas]], with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.<ref name="mgmpPRC"/><ref>[http://www.cair.com/Portals/0/pdf/The_Mosque_in_America_A_National_Portrait.pdf The Mosque in America: A National Portrait] Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.</ref>

According to the [[Pew Research Center]], Islam is set to equal Christianity in number of adherents by the year 2050. Islam is set to grow faster than any other major world religion, reaching a total number of 2.76 billion (an increase of 73%). High fertility rates play a factor, with Islam having a rate of 3.1 compared to the world average of 2.5, and the minimum replacement level for a population at 2.1. Age also plays a role in these numbers due to the fact that Islam has the highest number of adherents under the age of 15 (34% of the total religion) of any major religion (Christianity's is 27%). Sixty percent of Muslims are between the ages of 16 and 59, while only 7% are aged 60+ (the smallest percentage of any major religion). Countries such as Nigeria and the Republic of Macedonia are expected to have Muslim majorities by 2050. In India, the Muslim population will be larger than any other country. Europe's domestic population is set to shrink as opposed to their Islamic population which is set to grow to 10% of Europe's total.<ref name=pew2015/> According to BBC News, the rates of growth of [[Islam in Europe]] reveal that the growing number of Muslims is due primarily to immigration and higher [[birth rate]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |title=site |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=2005-12-23 |accessdate=2010-04-01}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main article|Islamic culture}}
The term "[[Islamic culture]]" could be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the [[religion]], such as [[festivals]] and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally [[Muslim]] people.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth|publisher=nytimes.com|accessdate=25 November 2013|date=4 November 2011}}</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2010|p=56}}</ref> sometimes referred to as "[[wikt:Islamicate|Islamicate]]".

===Architecture===
{{Main article|Islamic architecture}}
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic [[architecture]] is that of the [[mosque]].<ref>"Islam", ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2005)</ref> Varying cultures have an effect on mosque architecture. For example, North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] contain [[marble]] and [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LgnhYDozENgC&pg=PA175&dq=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns#v=onepage&q=mosque%20kairouan%20roman%20columns&f=false |title=Elizabeth Allo Isichei, ''A history of African societies to 1870'', page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997 |publisher=|accessdate=2010-08-06|isbn=978-0-521-45599-2|year=1997|author1=Isichei|first1=Elizabeth Allo}}</ref> while [[mosques in Indonesia]] often have multi-tiered roofs from local [[Java]]n styles.

<center>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="150px">
File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Djenné]], in the west African country of [[Mali]]
File:1 great mosque xian 2011.JPG|[[Great Mosque of Xi'an]] in [[Xi'an]], [[China]]
File:Closeup of Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.jpg|Dome in [[Po-i-Kalyan]], [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]]
</gallery>
</center>

===Art===
{{Main article|Islamic art}}
[[Islamic art]] encompasses the [[visual arts]] produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily [[Muslim]]) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.<ref>Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250'', Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3</ref> It includes fields as varied as [[architecture]], [[calligraphy]], [[painting]], and [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]], among others.

While not condemned in the Quran, making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic cultures and connected with [[Aniconism in Islam|laws against idolatry]] common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood reported that Muhammad said, "Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers" (reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this [[Aniconism in Islam|aversion to creating images of animate beings]] has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>{{cite book| publisher=Oxford University Press | title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam | author1=Salim Ayduz | author2= Ibrahim Kalin | author3=Caner Dagli| date=May 1, 2014 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA263&lpg=PA263&dq=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&source=bl&ots=6emVLZipxA&sig=2nelekagFEZA0C8VBgFG6lJj-B0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwix4eHpzMrLAhWC1x4KHZNNA0AQ6AEIVDAM#v=onepage&q=islamic%20art%20idolatry%20geometry&f=false | quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural represenation.  Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref>

<center>
<gallery widths="240px" heights="240">
File:Basmalah-1wm.svg|thumb|200px|The phrase [[Basmala|Bismillah]] in 18th-century Ottoman calligraphy in the [[Thuluth]] style.
File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg|thumb|Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in [[Shiraz]]
</gallery>
</center>

===Calendar===
{{Muslimmonths}}
{{Main article|Islamic calendar}}
[[File:Lunar libration with phase Oct 2007.gif|thumb|right|The phases of the [[Moon]] form the basis for the [[Islamic calendar]].]]
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen, reportedly by [[Umar|Caliph Umar]], to be the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. It is a [[lunar calendar]] with days lasting from sunset to sunset.<ref>[[Patheos Library]] – Islam Sacred Time – [http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism/Sacred-Time.html Patheos.com]</ref> Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in [[seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' ({{lang-ar|عيد الفطر}}) on the 1st of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' ({{lang|ar|عيد الأضحى}}) on the 10th of ''[[Dhu al-Hijjah]]'', coinciding with the end of the Hajj pilgrimage.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]</ref>

==Criticism==
{{main article|Criticism of Islam}}
Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian [[heresy]] or a form of idolatry and often explained it in apocalyptic terms.<ref>{{Cite book| author=Erwin Fahlbusch | title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 2 | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing | year=1999 |  url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC&pg=PA759|page=759}}</ref> Later there appeared criticism from the [[Muslim world]] itself, and also from [[Judaism|Jewish]] writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.<ref name="WarraqPoetry">{{Cite book| last=Warraq| first=Ibn | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=2003 | isbn=1-59102-068-9 | page=67}}</ref><ref name="Ibn Kammuna">{{cite book|first=Ibn|last=Kammuna|title=Examination of the Three Faiths|publisher=Moshe Perlmann|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|date=1971|pages=148–49}}</ref><ref name="Oussani">{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10424a.htm|title=Mohammed and Mohammedanism|first=Gabriel|last=Oussani|publisher=Catholic Encyclopedia|work=Newadvent.org|accessdate=April 16, 2006}}</ref>

Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life,<ref name="Oussani"/><ref name="WarraqQuest">{{cite book|first=Ibn|last=Warraq|title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad|location=Amherst, Mass.|publisher=Prometheus Books|date=March 1, 2000|edition=1st|isbn=1-57392-787-2|page=103}}</ref> as seen in [[medieval Christian views on Muhammad]]. Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Quran, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics.<ref name="BibleInQuran">[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1032&letter=B#3068 Bible in Mohammedian Literature.], by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald, ''Jewish Encyclopedia''. Retrieved April 22, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite book| first=Robert | last=Spencer | title=Islam Unveiled: Disturbing Questions About the World's Fastest Growing Faith | date= October 25, 2002 | pages=22–63 | publisher=Encounter Books | location= | isbn=1-893554-58-9 }}</ref> Other criticisms focus on the question of [[human rights]] in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.<ref name="women">{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2005&country=6825|title=Saudi Arabia - Country report - Freedom in the World - 2005|publisher=}}</ref><ref name="IslamInEurope">{{Cite news| publisher=[[The New York Review of Books]] | date=2006-10-05 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}</ref> In wake of the recent [[multiculturalism]] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been [[criticism of multiculturalism|criticized]].<ref name="Modood">{{Cite book| title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach | first=Tariq | last=Modood | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | date=April 6, 2006 | isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 | page=29}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Main article|Outline of Islam}}
{{Wikipedia books
 |1=Abrahamic religions
 |3=Islam
}}
{{Div col|3}}
* [[Criticism of Islam]]
* [[Challenge of the Quran]]
* [[Glossary of Islam]]
* [[History of Islam]]
* [[Islam and violence]]
* [[Islam and other religions]]
* [[Islam by country]]
* [[Islamic economics]]
* [[Islamic ethics]]
* [[Islam and humanity]]
* [[Morality in Islam]]
* [[Islamic literature]]
* [[Islamic mythology]]
* [[Islamic schools and branches]]
* [[Islamic studies]]
* [[List of Muslim empires and dynasties]]
* [[List of notable converts to Islam]]
* [[Lists of Muslims]]
* [[Major religious groups]]
* [[Muslim world]]
* [[Religious conversion#Islam]]
* [[Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts]]
* [[Timeline of Muslim history]]
* [[Islam in South Asia]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=note}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Books and journals===
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{Cite journal| last=Accad | first=Martin | title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) | journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations | volume=14 | issue=1 |year=2003 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Ahmed | first=Akbar | title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World | publisher=I. B. Tauris | edition=2.00 | year=1999 | isbn=978-1-86064-257-9 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group| isbn = 978-0-8264-9944-8| last = Bennett| first = Clinton |authorlink= Clinton Bennett| title = Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated| year = 2010| page=101 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Brockopp | first=Jonathan E. | title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia | publisher=University of South Carolina press | year=2003 | isbn=1-57003-471-0 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Cohen-Mor | first=Dalya | title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | isbn=0-19-513398-6 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Curtis | first=Patricia A. | year=2005 | title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional | isbn=978-0-8138-1946-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink = John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2010 | edition=4th | isbn=978-0-19-539600-3 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | isbn=978-0-19-511234-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Esposito |first1=John|last2=Haddad|first2=Yvonne Yazbeck| title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000a | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-513526-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John |year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John| year=2002a | title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-516886-0 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John| year=2002b | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-515713-3 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John| title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year=2003 | isbn=0-19-512558-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John| title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | edition=3rd Rev Upd | isbn=978-0-19-518266-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | isbn=978-0-8120-1853-0 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Farah | first=Caesar| title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=2003 | edition=7th | isbn=978-0-7641-2226-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Firestone | first=Reuven | title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=1999 | isbn=0-19-512580-0 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=[[Mizan]] | publisher=[[Al-Mawrid|Dar al-Ishraq]] | year=2001 | oclc=52901690  | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Goldschmidt, Jr. |first1=Arthur | last2=Davidson| first2 = Lawrence | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | isbn=978-0-8133-4275-7 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Griffith |first1=Ruth Marie | last2=Savage| first2=Barbara Dianne | title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | isbn=0-8018-8370-9 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last= Haddad | first= Yvonne Yazbeck |title= Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens| publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] | year=2002 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Hawting| first=G. R. | authorlink= G.R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | isbn=0-415-24073-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | isbn=978-1-55369-842-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Hofmann|first1=Murad|title=Islam and Qur'an|edition=|year=2007|publisher=|location=|isbn=978-1-59008-047-4|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Holt|first1=P.M | last2=Lewis| first2=Bernard| authorlink2=Bernard Lewis | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-29136-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last1=Holt | first1=P. M. | last2=Lambton |first2=Ann K.S| last3=Lewis| first3=Bernard | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-29137-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last1=Hourani | first1=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | last2=Ruthven| first2=Malise| authorlink2=Malise Ruthven | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | isbn=978-0-674-01017-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-313-32472-7 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Kramer | first=Martin | title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution | publisher=Westview Press | year=1987 | isbn=978-0-8133-0453-3 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lapidus| first=Ira | title=A History of Islamic Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-0-521-77933-3 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis| title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul | year=1984 | isbn=0-7102-0462-0 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993 | isbn=0-19-285258-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=The Middle East | publisher=Scribner | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-684-83280-7 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | edition=2nd | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-8126-9518-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East | publisher=Harper Perennial | edition=Reprint | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-06-051605-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror | publisher=Random House, Inc., New York | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-8129-6785-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | authorlink=Wilferd Madelung | title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | isbn=0-521-64696-0 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last1=Malik| first1=Jamal| last2=Hinnells| first2=John R | title=Sufism in the West | publisher= Routledge | year=2006 | isbn=0-415-27408-7 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Menski | first=Werner F. | title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | isbn=0-521-85859-3 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book | editor-last = Miller | editor-first = Tracy |date=October 2009 | publisher = [[Pew Research Center]] | title = Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population | format = PDF | url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ | accessdate = 2013-09-24 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Momen | first=Moojan | title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | isbn=978-0-300-03531-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Nasr | first=Seyed Muhammad | title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) | publisher=HarperCollins | year=1994| isbn=0-06-067700-7 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last= Nigosian | first = Solomon Alexander | title=Islam: its history, teaching, and practices| publisher= [[Indiana University Press]]| year =2004| isbn= | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite journal| last=Patton | first=Walter M. | title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |date=April 1900 | volume=16 | issue=3 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | isbn=90-04-10314-7 | doi=10.1086/369367 | page=129 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Peters | first=F. E.| title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0-691-11553-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Rahman | first=H. U. |title=Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE | publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd | edition=3rd | year=1999 | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book| last=Rippin | first=Andrew | authorlink=Andrew Rippin | title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | publisher=Routledge | edition=2nd | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-415-21781-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Sachedina | first=Abdulaziz | title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence | publisher=Oxford University Press US | year=1998 | isbn=0-19-511915-0 | authorlink=Abdulaziz Sachedina | ref=harv}}
* Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. ''A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide''. First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8
* {{Cite book| last=Smith | first=Jane I. | title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-19-515649-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last1=Tabatabae | first1=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | last2=Nasr| first2=Seyyed Hossein | authorlink1=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Shi'ite Islam | publisher=Suny press| year=1979 | isbn=0-87395-272-3 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Teece | first=Geoff | title=Religion in Focus: Islam | publisher=Franklin Watts Ltd | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-7496-4796-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Trimingham| first=John Spencer | title=The Sufi Orders in Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998| isbn=0-19-512058-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Turner | first=Colin | title=Islam: the Basics | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=2006 | isbn=0-415-34106-X | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Turner | first=Bryan S. | title=Weber and Islam | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | isbn=0-415-17458-9 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Waines | first=David | title=An Introduction to Islam | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0-521-53906-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought | publisher=University Press Edinburgh| year=1973 | isbn=0-85224-245-X | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery|title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=New | year=1974 | isbn=0-19-881078-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Weiss | first=Bernard G. | title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | year=2002 | location=Boston | publisher=Brill Academic publishers | isbn=90-04-12066-1 | ref=harv}}
{{Refend}}

====Encyclopedias====
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor1=William H. McNeill |editor2=Jerry H. Bentley |editor3=David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|editor=Gabriel Oussani|encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]|year=1910|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor1=Paul Lagasse |editor2=Lora Goldman |editor3=Archie Hobson |editor4=Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | isbn=978-1-59339-236-9 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Ahmad |first= Imad-ad-Dean |author-link= Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad | editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |title= Islam |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n155 |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages= 256–58 |quote=|ref= }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor1=Erwin Fahlbusch |editor2=William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001 | edition=1st| isbn=0-8028-2414-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | edition=1st | isbn=0-19-522393-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor1-first=P.J. | editor1-last=Bearman | editor1-link=Peri Bearman | editor2-first=Th. | editor2-last=Bianquis | editor3-first =C. E. | editor3-last=Bosworth | editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth | editor4-first=E. | editor4-last=van Donzel | editor5-first=W. P. | editor5-last=Heinrichs | editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | issn=1573-3912 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor1=Richard C. Martin |editor2=Said Amir Arjomand |editor3=Marcia Hermansen |editor4=Abdulkader Tayob |editor5=Rochelle Davis |editor6=John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World|publisher=MacMillan Reference Books|year=2003|isbn=978-0-02-865603-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|editor=Salamone Frank|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals|publisher=Routledge|edition=1st|year=2004|isbn=978-0-415-94180-8|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=Glasse Cyril | encyclopedia=New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0759101906 | ref=harv}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). ''Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim''. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. ''N.B''. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
* {{Cite book| last=Akyol | first=Mustafa | authorlink=Mustafa Akyol | title=Islam Without Extremes | publisher=W. W. Norton & Company | edition=1st | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-393-07086-6}}
* {{Cite book| last=Arberry | first=A. J. | authorlink=A. J. Arberry | title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation | publisher=Touchstone | edition=1st | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-684-82507-6}}
* Cragg, Kenneth (1975). ''The House of Islam'', in ''The Religious Life of Man Series''. Second ed. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4
* Hourani, Albert (1991). ''Islam in European Thought''. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0
* {{Cite book| last=Khan | first=Muhammad Muhsin | authorlink=Muhammad Muhsin Khan |author2=Al-Hilali Khan |author3=Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din | title=Noble Quran | year=1999 | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | edition=1st | isbn=978-9960-740-79-9}}
* A. Khanbaghi (2006). ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''. I. B. Tauris.
* Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5
* {{Cite book| last=Kramer (ed.) | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Kramer | title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis | publisher=Syracuse University | year=1999 | isbn=978-965-224-040-8}}
* {{Cite book| last=Kuban | first=Dogan | title=Muslim Religious Architecture | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1974 | isbn=90-04-03813-2}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard | title=Islam and the West | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1994 | isbn=978-0-19-509061-1}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-19-510283-3}}
* {{Cite book| last=Mubarkpuri | first=Saifur-Rahman | title=[[The Sealed Nectar]]: Biography of the Prophet | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2002 | isbn=978-1-59144-071-0}}
* {{Cite book| last=Najeebabadi | first=Akbar Shah | title=History of Islam | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2001 | ref=Harv | isbn=978-1-59144-034-5}}
* {{Cite book| last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | edition=New | isbn=978-0-253-21627-4}}
* {{Cite book| last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | title=Islam | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1979 | edition=2nd | isbn=0-226-70281-2}}
* {{Cite book| last=Tausch | first=Arno| authorlink=Arno Tausch | title=What 1.3&nbsp;Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "[[World Values Survey]]". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University | publisher=Nova Science Publishers, New York| year=2009 | edition=1st | isbn=978-1-60692-731-1}}
*{{Cite book | last=Tausch | first=Arno | authorlink=Arno Tausch | title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui. |publisher=Nova Science Publishers, New York|year=2015 | edition=1st | isbn=978-1-62948-899-8}}
* {{Cite book| last=Walker | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Walker (author) | title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith | publisher=Peter Owen Publishers | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-7206-1038-3}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links |wikt=Islam |commons=Category:Islam |b=Subject:Islam |n=Category:Islam |q=Islam |s=Portal:Islam |v=Islam |voy=Islam |species=no |d=Q432 |m=no|mw=no}}
;Academic resources
* [http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam.html Patheos Library&nbsp;– Islam]
* [http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/home/ University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts]
* [http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam Divisions in Islam]

;Online resources
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam Islam], article at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
*{{DMOZ|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/}}

;Directories
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_%28Bookshelf%29 Islam (Bookshelf)] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/islamus.htm Islam] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
{{Islam topics}}
{{Religion topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Islam| ]]
[[Category:Monotheistic religions]]
[[Category:Abrahamic religions]]
[[Category:610 establishments]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 7th century]]