Admin: Yeni sayfa: "'''Nomadic empires''', sometimes also called '''steppe empires''', '''Central''' or '''Inner Asian empires''', are the empires erected by the bow-wielding, horse-riding, Euras..."

2017-03-26T17:22:51Z

Yeni sayfa: "'''Nomadic empires''', sometimes also called '''steppe empires''', '''Central''' or '''Inner Asian empires''', are the empires erected by the bow-wielding, horse-riding, Euras..."

Yeni sayfa

'''Nomadic empires''', sometimes also called '''steppe empires''', '''Central''' or '''Inner Asian empires''', are the [[empire]]s erected by the bow-wielding, horse-riding, [[Eurasian nomads|nomadic peoples]] in the [[Eurasian steppe]], from [[classical antiquity]] ([[Scythia]]) to the [[early modern era]] ([[Dzungars]]). They are the most prominent example of non-[[Sedentism|sedentary]] [[polity|polities]].

Some nomadic empires operated by establishing a [[capital city]] inside a conquered sedentary state, and then by exploiting the existing bureaucrats and commercial resources of that non-nomadic society. As the pattern is repeated, the originally nomadic dynasty becomes [[culturally assimilated]] to the culture of the occupied nation before it is ultimately overthrown.<ref>Golden, Peter B. (1992). ''An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State Formation in the Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East''. Southgate Publishers. p. 75.</ref> [[Ibn Khaldun]] described a similar cycle on a smaller scale in his [[Asabiyyah]] theory. A term used for these polities in the early medieval period is [[khanate]] (after ''khan'', the title of their rulers), and after the Mongol conquests also as [[Orda (organization)|orda (horde)]] as in [[Golden Horde]].

==Ancient history==

===Cimmeria===
{{main article|Cimmerians}}
The [[Cimmerians]] were an ancient Indo-European people living north of the Caucasus and the Sea of Azov as early as 1300 BCE until they were driven southward by the Scythians into Anatolia during the 8th century BC. Linguistically they are usually regarded as Iranian, or possibly Thracian with an Iranian ruling class.

* The [[Pontic-Caspian steppe]]: [[Southern Federal District|southern Russia]] and [[Ukraine]] until 7th century BCE.
* The northern [[Caucasus]] area, including [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and modern day [[Azerbaijan]]
* Central, East and North [[Anatolia]] 714–626 BCE.

===Scythia===
{{main article|Scythia}}
[[Image:Scythia-Parthia 100 BC.png|thumb|Scythia]]

'''Scythia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|θ|i|ə}}; [[Ancient Greek]]: Σκυθική) was a region of [[Central Eurasia]] in [[classical antiquity]], occupied by the [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern]] [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[Scythians]],<ref name="EBScythian">{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/530361/Scythian |author= |title=Scythian |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |accessdate=16 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="CE_Scythia">{{cite web |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Scythia |title=Scythia |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= |website=[[Columbia Encyclopedia|Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |access-date=16 May 2015 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://history-world.org/scythians.htm|title=The Scythians|work=history-world.org}}</ref> encompassing parts of [[Eastern Europe]] east of the [[Vistula River]] and [[Central Asia]], with the eastern edges of the region vaguely defined by the Greeks.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} The Ancient Greeks gave the name Scythia (or Great Scythia) to all the lands north-east of Europe and the northern coast of the [[Black Sea]].<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:id=scythia-geo "Scythia", ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography'' (1854), William Smith, LLD, Ed.]</ref>
The Scythians – the Greeks' name for this initially nomadic people – inhabited Scythia from at least the 11th century BC to the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lessman|first=Thomas|title=World History Maps|url=http://www.worldhistorymaps.info/maps.html|work=2004|publisher=Thomas Lessman|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref>

===Sarmatia===
{{main article|Sarmatians}}

The '''Sarmatians''' (Latin: ''Sarmatæ'' or ''Sauromatæ'', [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται}}) were a large [[confederation]]<ref name="Sinor113">{{harvnb|Sinor|1990|p=113}}</ref> of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian people]] during [[classical antiquity]],<ref name="EBSarmatian">{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/524377/Sarmatian |author= |title=Sarmatian |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |accessdate=31 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="WM_Sarmatians">{{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|pp=692–694}}</ref> flourishing from about the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD.<ref name="UNESCO">J.Harmatta: "Scythians" in UNESCO Collection of History of Humanity – Volume III: From the Seventh Century BC to the Seventh Century AD. Routledge/UNESCO. 1996. pg. 182</ref> They spoke [[Scythian language|Scythian]], an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language from the [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian]] family. According to authors Arrowsmith, Fellowes and Graves Hansard in their book ''A Grammar of Ancient Geography'' published in 1832, Sarmatia had two parts, Sarmatia Europea <ref>{{cite book|last1=Arrowsmith, Fellowes, Hansard|first1=A, B & G L|title=A Grammar of Ancient Geography,: Compiled for the Use of King's College School|date=1832|publisher=Hansard London|page=9|edition=3 April 2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1iwAuAJSOcC&dq=Scythia+square+miles&source=gbs_navlinks_s|accessdate=20 August 2014}}</ref> and Sarmatia Asiatica <ref>{{cite book|last1=Arrowsmith, Fellowes, Hansard|first1=A, B & G L|title=A Grammar of Ancient Geography,: Compiled for the Use of King's College School|date=1832|publisher=Hansard London|page=15|edition=3 April 2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1iwAuAJSOcC&dq=Scythia+square+miles&source=gbs_navlinks_s|accessdate=20 August 2014}}</ref> covering a combined area of 503,000 sq mi or 1,302,764 km<sup>2</sup>.

===Xiongnu===
{{main article|Xiongnu}}
[[File:Hunnu Empire.jpg|thumb|Xiongnu Empire]]
The Xiongnu were a confederation of nomadic tribes from [[Central Asia]] with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes. They lived on the [[Mongolian Plateau]] between the 3rd century BC and the 460s AD, their territories including modern day [[Mongolia]], southern [[Siberia]], western [[Manchuria]], and the modern Chinese [[Province of China|provinces]] of [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Gansu]], and [[Xinjiang]]. The Xiongnu was the first unified empire of nomadic peoples. Relations between early Chinese dynasties and the Xiongnu were complicated and included [[military]] conflict, exchanges of [[tribute]] and trade, and marriage treaties. They were considered so dangerous and disruptive that the [[Qin Dynasty]] ordered the construction of the [[Great Wall]] to protect China from Xiongnu attacks.

===Kushan Empire===
{{main article|Kushan Empire}}

The '''Kushan Empire''' ({{lang-xbc|Κυϸανο}}, ''Kushano''; {{lang-sa|कुषाण राजवंश}} ''Kuṣāṇ Rājavaṃśa''; [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit|BHS]]: ''{{IAST|Guṣāṇa-vaṃśa}}''; {{lang-xpr|𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓}} ''Kušan-xšaθr''<ref>''The Dynasty Arts of the Kushans'', University of California Press, 1967, [https://books.google.com/books?id=udnBkQhzHH4C&pg=PA7 p. 5]</ref>) was a syncretic empire, formed by [[Yuezhi]], in the [[Bactria]]n territories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of [[Afghanistan]],<ref>http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm and Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350</ref> and then the northern parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]] at least as far as [[Saketa]] and [[Sarnath]] near [[Varanasi]] (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan emperor [[Kanishka the Great]].<ref>which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</ref>

===Xianbei===
{{main article|Xianbei state}}
[[File:Mongolia III.jpg|thumb|Xianbei Empire]]

The Xianbei state or Xianbei confederation was a nomadic empire which existed in modern-day [[Mongolia]], [[Inner Mongolia]], northern [[Xinjiang]], [[Northeast China]], [[Gansu]], [[Buryatia]], [[Zabaykalsky Krai]], [[Irkutsk Oblast]], [[Tuva]], [[Altai Republic]] and eastern [[Kazakhstan]] from 156–234 AD. Like most ancient peoples known through Chinese historiography, the ethnic makeup of the [[Xianbei]] is unclear.{{sfn|Wyatt|2004|p=8}} The Xianbei were a northern branch of the earlier [[Donghu people|Donghu]] and it is likely at least some were [[proto-Mongols]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Sanping|title=A-Gan Revisited — The Tuoba's Cultural and Political Heritage|journal=Journal of Asian History|date=1996|volume=30|issue=1|pages=46–78|jstor=41931010}}</ref>

===Hephthalite Empire===
{{main article|Hephthalite Empire}}

The '''Hephthalites''', '''Ephthalites''', '''Ye-tai''', '''White Huns''', or, in [[Sanskrit]], the '''Sveta Huna''', were a confederation of [[nomad]]ic and settled<ref>Prokopios, ''Historien'' I 3,2–7.</ref> people in [[Central Asia]] who expanded their domain westward in the 5th century.<ref name=Rene>{{Cite book |last=Grousset |first=Rene |title=The Empire of the Steppes |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8135-1304-9 |pages=67–72}}</ref> At the height of its power in the first half of the 6th century, the Hephthalite Empire controlled territory in present-day [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[China]].<ref name="UNESCO">{{harvnb|Unesco Staff|1996|pp=135–163}}</ref><ref name="West">{{harvnb|West|2009|pp=274–277}}</ref>

===Hunnic Empire===
{{main article|Huns}}
[[File:Huns empire.png|right|thumb|The Hunnic Empire, at its height under [[Attila]].]]

The [[Huns]] were a confederation of [[Eurasia]]n tribes from the Steppes of [[Central Asia]]. Appearing from beyond the [[Volga]] River some years after the middle of the 4th century, they conquered all of eastern Europe, ending up at the border of the [[Roman Empire]] in the south, and advancing far into modern day [[Germany]] in the north. Their appearance in Europe brought with it great ethnic and political upheaval and may have stimulated the [[Migration period|Great Migration]]. The empire reached its largest size under [[Attila]] between 447 and 453.

==Post-classical history==
===Mongolic people and Turkic expansion===
{{further information|Turkic expansion|Turkic tribal confederations|Bulgars|Khazars|Pannonian Avars}}

====Rouran====
[[File:Rouran500.png|thumb|The Rouran Khanate, ca. 500 CE]]
{{Main article|Rouran}}

The Rouran (柔然), Juan Juan (蠕蠕), or Ruru (茹茹) were a confederation of Mongolic speaking<ref>[[William Montgomery McGovern]] – [https://books.google.com/books/about/The_early_empires_of_Central_Asia.html?id=IMMrAAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y|The early empires of Central Asia] ,p. 421</ref> nomadic tribes on the northern borders of [[China]] from the late 4th century until the late 6th century. They controlled the area of [[Mongolia]] from the [[Manchuria]]n border to [[Turpan]] and, perhaps, the east coast of [[Lake Balkhash]], and from the [[Orkhon River]] to [[China Proper]].

====Göktürks====
{{main article|Turkic Khaganate}}
[[Image:Gokturkut.png|right|thumb|Gökturk [[khagan]]ates at their height, c. 600 CE :
{{Legend|purple|Western Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.}}
{{Legend|blue|Eastern Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.}}]]

The Göktürks or Kök-Türks were a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic people]] of ancient [[North Asia|North]] and [[Central Asia]] and northwestern [[China]]. Under the leadership of [[Bumin Khan]] and his sons they established the first known Turkic state around 546, taking the place of the earlier [[Xiongnu]] as the main power in the region. They were the first Turkic tribe to use the name "Türk" as a political name. The empire was split into a western and an eastern part around 600, merged again 680, and finally declined after 734.

====Uyghurs====
{{main article|Uyghur Khaganate}}
[[File:East-Hem 800ad.jpg|thumb|Asia in 800 AD, showing the Uyghur Khanate and its neighbors.]]

The Uyghur Empire was a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] empire that existed in present-day Mongolia and surrounding areas for about a century between the mid 8th and 9th centuries. It was a tribal confederation under the [[Orkhon Uyghur]] nobility. It was established by [[Kutlug I Bilge Kagan]] in 744, taking advantage of the power vacuum in the region after the fall of the Gökturk Empire. It collapsed after a [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] invasion in 840.

===Mongol Empire===
{{main|Mongol Empire|Tartary|Tatar yoke}}
[[File:Mongol Empire map.gif|thumb|Expansion of the Mongol Empire]]

The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in history at its peak, with an estimated population of over 100 million people. The Mongol Empire was founded by [[Genghis Khan]] in 1206, and at its height, it encompassed the majority of the territories from [[Southeast Asia]] to [[Eastern Europe]].

After unifying the [[Turco-Mongol]] tribes, the Empire expanded through conquests throughout continental [[Eurasia]]. During its existence, the [[Pax Mongolica]] facilitated cultural exchange and trade on the [[Silk Route]] between the [[Eastern world|East]], [[Western world|West]], and the [[Middle East]] in the period of the 13th and 14th centuries. It had significantly eased [[communication]] and [[commerce]] across [[Asia]] during its height.<ref>Gregory G.Guzman – [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-6563.1988.tb00759.x/abstract|Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history?], The historian 50 (1988), 568–70</ref><ref>Thomas T.Allsen – [https://books.google.com/books/about/Culture_and_Conquest_in_Mongol_Eurasia.html?id=0StLNcKQNUoC&redir_esc=y|Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia], 211</ref>

After the death of [[Möngke Khan]] in 1259, the empire split into four parts ([[Yuan dynasty]], [[Ilkhanate]], [[Chagatai Khanate]] and [[Golden Horde]]), each of which was ruled by its own [[Khan (title)|Khan]], though the Yuan rulers had nominal title of Khagan. After the disintegration of the western khanates and the fall of the Yuan dynasty in China in 1368, the empire finally broke up.

===Timurid Empire===
{{main article|Timurid Empire}}
[[File:Mongol dominions.jpg|thumb|Timurid continental map]]

The [[Timurids]], self-designated Gurkānī, were a [[Turco-Mongol|Turko-Mongol]] dynasty, established by the warlord [[Timur]] in 1370 and lasting until 1506. At its zenith, the Timurid Empire included the whole of [[Central Asia]], [[Iran]] and modern [[Afghanistan]], as well as large parts of [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Caucasus]].

==Modern history==
===Later Mongol khanates===
{{main article|Northern Yuan dynasty|Dzungar Khanate}}

Later Mongol khanates such as the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]] based in [[Mongolia]] and the [[Dzungar Khanate]] based in [[Xinjiang]] were also nomadic empires. Right after the fall of the [[Yuan dynasty]] in 1368, the succeeding [[Ming dynasty]] established by [[Han Chinese]] rebuilt the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]], which had been begun many hundreds of years earlier to keep the northern nomads out of [[China proper]]. During the subsequent centuries the Mongols, who were then based in Mongolia as the Northern Yuan dynasty, tended to continue their independent, nomadic way of life as much as possible.<ref>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, by Barbara A. West, p. 558</ref> On the other hand, the [[Dzungar people|Dzungars]] were a confederation of several [[Oirats|Oirat]] tribes who formed and maintained the last horse archer empire from the early 17th century to the middle 18th century. They emerged in the early 17th century to fight the [[Altan Khan of the Khalkha]], the [[Jasaghtu Khan]] and their [[Manchu]] patrons for dominion and control over the Mongolian people and territories. In 1756 this last nomadic power was dissolved due to the Oirat princes' succession struggle and costly war with the [[Qing dynasty]].

==Popular misconceptions==
The [[Qing dynasty]] is mistakenly confused as a nomadic empire by people who wrongly think that the [[Manchus]] were a nomadic people,<ref>Pamela Crossley, ''The Manchus'', p. 3</ref> when in fact they were not nomads,<ref>Patricia Buckley Ebrey et al., [https://books.google.com/books?id=QfkWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA271&dq=%22the+manchus+were+not+nomads%22&hl=zh-CN&sa=X&ei=NommUtWDMczaoATT6IHgDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22the%20manchus%20were%20not%20nomads%22&f=false ''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History''], 3rd edition, p. 271</ref><ref>Frederic Wakeman, Jr., [https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA24&dq=%22the+manchus+were+not+nomads%22&hl=zh-CN&sa=X&ei=NommUtWDMczaoATT6IHgDQ#v=onepage&q=%22the%20manchus%20were%20not%20nomads%22&f=false ''The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in the Seventeenth Century''], p. 24, note 1</ref> but instead were a sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops, practiced hunting and mounted archery.

The [[Sushen]] used flint headed wooden arrows, farmed, hunted, and fished, and lived in caves and trees.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/2719229?seq=8 Huang 1990] p. 246.</ref> The cognates Sushen or Jichen (稷真) again appear in the ''[[Shan Hai Jing]]'' and ''[[Book of Wei]]'' during the dynastic era referring to [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] [[Mohe people|Mohe]] tribes of the far northeast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%80%B8%E5%91%A8%E6%9B%B8#.E7.8E.8B.E6.9C.83|title=逸周書|publisher=|accessdate=18 March 2015}}</ref> The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=KHwPAAAAYAAJ&q=The+Mohe+tribes+can+be+characterized+as+having+mostly+a+sedentary+way+of+life.+Pig+breeding+was+the+main+branch+of+their+stockraising+(the+same+can+be+said+about+the+Sushen).+The+richest+PROLEGOMENA+TO+MANCHU+STUDIES+13.&dq=The+Mohe+tribes+can+be+characterized+as+having+mostly+a+sedentary+way+of+life.+Pig+breeding+was+the+main+branch+of+their+stockraising+(the+same+can+be+said+about+the+Sushen).+The+richest+PROLEGOMENA+TO+MANCHU+STUDIES+13.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WxTkU4CtNffesAT474LgCg&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA Gorelova 2002], pp. 13–4.</ref> and also used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet, and rice, in addition to engaging in hunting.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=KHwPAAAAYAAJ&q=raising+(the+same+can+be+said+about+the+Sushen).+The+richest+of+them+possessed+large+flocks+of+pigs,+which+mounted+to+hundreds+of+heads.+They+liked+eating+pork,+and+pig-skins+were+used+by+them+for+sewing+winter+coats+(again+like+the+Sushen).+The+Mohes+also+bred+dogs,+from+whose+skins+they+sewed+fur+coats.....The+Mohe+were+mainly+engaged+in+developed+agriculture,+as+they+used+a+plough,+pushing+it+in+front,+and+pairs+of+horses+as+drought+power.+They+sowed+wheat,+millet,+rice+plants,+and+soybean,+and+used+rice+for+preparing+special+liqueur.&dq=raising+(the+same+can+be+said+about+the+Sushen).+The+richest+of+them+possessed+large+flocks+of+pigs,+which+mounted+to+hundreds+of+heads.+They+liked+eating+pork,+and+pig-skins+were+used+by+them+for+sewing+winter+coats+(again+like+the+Sushen).+The+Mohes+also+bred+dogs,+from+whose+skins+they+sewed+fur+coats.....The+Mohe+were+mainly+engaged+in+developed+agriculture,+as+they+used+a+plough,+pushing+it+in+front,+and+pairs+of+horses+as+drought+power.+They+sowed+wheat,+millet,+rice+plants,+and+soybean,+and+used+rice+for+preparing+special+liqueur.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IxbkU8C5K-jIsASOgYLACA&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA Gorelova 2002], p. 14.</ref>

The [[Jurchens]] were sedentary,<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20140318135121/http://weaponsandwarfare.com/?p=885 Williamson 2011].</ref><ref>[http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ea210/manchu2.html Vajda].</ref> settled farmers with advanced agriculture. They farmed grain and millet as their cereal crops, grew flax, and raised oxen, pigs, sheep, and horses.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA416&dq=Jurchen++log&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oD7kUseuN87isAT5_YLQCg&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Jurchen%20%20log&f=false Sinor 1996], p. 416.</ref> Their farming way of life was very different from the pastoral nomadism of the Mongols and the Khitan on the steppes.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=iN9Tdfdap5MC&pg=PA217&dq=jurchen+sedentary&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Zs0wUoDDGOv94APpnYGIAQ&ved=0CFAQ6wEwBg#v=onepage&q=jurchen%20sedentary&f=false Twitchett, Franke, Fairbank 1994], p. 217.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA112&dq=Jurchen+Chin+farming+background+inclined+to+cultural+assimilation+with+agricultural+society+of+China&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lpdRU6nWKue0sQSso4HwAg&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Jurchen%20Chin%20farming%20background%20inclined%20to%20cultural%20assimilation%20with%20agricultural%20society%20of%20China&f=false de Rachewiltz 1993], p. 112.</ref> "At the most", the Jurchen could only be described as "semi-nomadic" while the majority of them were sedentary.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wZx0VvujPqcC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q=semi-nomadic&f=false Breuker 2010], p. 221.</ref>

The Manchu way of life (economy) was described as agricultural, farming crops and [[Animal husbandry|raising animals]] on farms.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=glU0vte5gSkC&pg=PA828#v=onepage&q&f=false Wurm 1996], p. 828.</ref> Manchus practiced [[slash-and-burn|Slash-and-burn agriculture]] in the areas north of [[Shenyang]].<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=2 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 504.</ref> The [[Haixi Jurchens]] were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian (毛怜) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tyhT9SZRLS8C&pg=PA266&dq=jurchen+sedentary&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Zs0wUoDDGOv94APpnYGIAQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=jurchen%20sedentary&f=false Mote, Twitchett & Fairbank 1988], p. 266.</ref> Han Chinese society resembled that of the sedentary Jianzhou and Maolian, who were farmers.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&pg=PA258&dq=chien+chou+mao+lien+sedentary&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aI3TU46MOs_nsASPv4HIDg&ved=0CCsQ6wEwAQ#v=onepage&q=chien%20chou%20mao%20lien%20sedentary&f=false Twitchett & Mote 1998], p. 258.</ref> Hunting, archery on horseback, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by the Jianzhou Jurchens as part of their culture.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/2646525?seq=6 Rawski 1996], p. 834.</ref> In spite of the fact that the Manchus practiced archery on horse back and equestrianism, the Manchu's immediate progenitors practiced sedentary agriculture.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA43#v=onepage&q&f=false Rawski 1998], p. 43.</ref> Although the Manchus also partook in hunting, they were sedentary.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=WFls6zdc40QC&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q&f=false Allsen 2011], p. 215.</ref> Their primary mode of production was farming while they lived in villages, forts, and towns surrounded by walls. Farming was practiced by their Jurchen Jin predecessors.<ref>{{cite book|title=Transactions, American Philosophical Society (vol. 36, Part 1, 1946)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g08LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=Marriages+between+Manchu+girls+and+Chinese+deserters+were+officially+promoted+during+the+early+years+of+the+dynasty.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UxkdVdLpNMaYgwSpwYHYCg&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Marriages+between+Manchu+girls+and+Chinese+deserters+were+officially+promoted+during+the+early+years+of+the+dynasty.&f=false|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn=978-1-4223-7719-2|pages=10–}}</ref><ref name="WittfogelFêng1949">{{cite book|author1=Karl August Wittfogel|author2=Chia-shêng Fêng|title=History of Chinese Society: Liao, 907-1125|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c35CAAAAYAAJ&q=Marriages+between+Manchu+girls+and+Chinese+deserters+were+officially+promoted+during+the+early+years+of+the+dynasty.&dq=Marriages+between+Manchu+girls+and+Chinese+deserters+were+officially+promoted+during+the+early+years+of+the+dynasty.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BR8dVeuxGISnNuOTgsAF&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA|year=1949|publisher=American Philosophical Society|page=10}}</ref>

{{quote box
| width = 40%
| align = left
| quote = “建州毛怜则渤海大氏遗孽，乐住种，善缉纺，饮食服用，皆如华人，自长白山迤南，可拊而治也。" ''"The (people of) Chien-chou and Mao-lin [YLSL always reads Mao-lien] are the descendants of the family Ta of Po-hai. They love to be sedentary and sow, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. (Those living) south of the Ch'ang-pai mountain are apt to be soothed and governed."''
| salign = left
| source = — 据魏焕《皇明九边考》卷二《辽东镇边夷考》<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.artx.cn/artx/lishi/20422.html |title=明代汉族与女真族的马市贸易 |author=萧国亮 |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date=2007-01-24 |website= 艺术中国(ARTX.cn)|page=1|publisher= |accessdate=25 July 2014}}</ref> Translation from ''Sino-J̌ürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403–1424'' by Henry Serruys<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=9YETAAAAIAAJ&q=chien+chou+mao+lien+sedentary&dq=chien+chou+mao+lien+sedentary&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aI3TU46MOs_nsASPv4HIDg&ved=0CDIQ6wEwAg Serruys 1955], p. 22.</ref>
}}

For political reasons, the Jurchen leader Nurhaci chose variously to emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with other peoples like the Mongols.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&pg=PA127&dq=Mongols+Manchus+Nurhaci+stressed+differences&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XnbsUoCeHLSqsASiy4DABQ&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Mongols%20Manchus%20Nurhaci%20stressed%20differences&f=false Perdue 2009], p. 127.</ref> [[Nurhaci]] said to the Mongols that "The languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based in any real shared culture. It was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism", since Nurhaci said to the Mongols: "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA31&dq=Nurhaci+mongol+meat+grain&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4XXsUujGIeO1sASQ0IDwBg&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Nurhaci%20mongol%20meat%20grain&f=false Peterson 2002], p. 31.</ref>

==Further reading==

* [[Reuven Amitai|Amitai, Reuven]]; [[Michal Biran|Biran, Michal]] (editors). ''Mongols, Turks, and others: Eurasian nomads and the sedentary world (Brill's Inner Asian Library, 11)''. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]], 2005 (ISBN 90-04-14096-4).
* [[Robert Drews|Drews, Robert]]. ''Early riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe''. N.Y.: Routledge, 2004 (ISBN 0-415-32624-9).
* Grousset, Rene. ''The Empire of the Steppes: a History of Central Asia'', Naomi Walford, (tr.), New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1970.
* [[Erik Hildinger|Hildinger, Erik]]. ''Warriors of the steppe: A military history of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700''. New York: Sarpedon Publishers, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 1-885119-43-7); Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-306-81065-4).
* [[Nikolay Kradin|Kradin, Nikolay]]. Nomadic Empires: Origins, Rise, Decline. In ''Nomadic Pathways in Social Evolution''. Ed. by N.N. Kradin, [[Dmitri Bondarenko]], and T. Barfield (p. 73–87). Moscow: Center for Civilizational Studies, [[Russian Academy of Sciences]], 2003.
* [[Nikolay Kradin|Kradin, Nikolay]]. Nomads of Inner Asia in Transition. Moscow: URSS, 2014 (ISBN 978-5-396-00632-4).

==See also==
*[[Thalassocracy]]
*[[List of Mongol states]]
*[[Mongol and Tatar states in Europe]]
*[[List of Turkic dynasties and countries]]
*[[Eurasian nomads]]
*[[Inner Asia]]
*[[History of Central Asia]]
*[[Military history of Asia]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{Inner Asia}}
{{Mongol ethnic groups}}
{{Turkic topics}}

[[Category:Nomadic empires| ]]
[[Category:Former empires]]
[[Category:Nomadic groups in Eurasia]]
[[Category:History of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Inner Asia]]

Nomadic empire - Değişiklik geçmişi

Admin: Yeni sayfa: "'''Nomadic empires''', sometimes also called '''steppe empires''', '''Central''' or '''Inner Asian empires''', are the empires erected by the bow-wielding, horse-riding, Euras..."